-
What is the main cause of adaptation?
Stress
-
What is hypertrophy?
increase in cell size and organ size
-
What is hyperplasia?
increase in cell # and organ volume
-
What types of tissues can become hypertrophic?
Heart & Skeletal mm
-
What types of tissues are affected by hyperplasia?
glands and ducts
-
What is atrophy?
reduced size of organ due to reduced cell size and reduced number
-
What is metaplasia?
transformation that is reversible and occurs in adult cell types
-
T/F Metaplasia is cancerous?
F, dysplasia can lead to cancer
-
What are two indications of a reversible change?
-
What type of disease of the heart is irreversible?
MI
-
hypertrophy: Pressure overload vs. Volume overload?
- Pressure overload: Concentric
- Volume overload: Eccentric
-
What are the two stimuli for hypertrophy?
Pressure and volume overload
-
Three mechanisms of cardiocyte hypertrophy? (MAG)
- Mechanical stretch
- agonists (Beta)
- growth factors
-
How do cardiocytes go through hypertrophy?
- More actin and myosin due to growth factors
- micro RNAs
-
How do nuclei appear in a hypertrophic cardiocyte?
- hyperchromatic
- boxy, large
-
How do fat cells grow differently pre- and post-puberty?
- Pre: increase in number
- Post: hypertrophy/atrophy
-
What causes subcellular hypertrophy of the SER?
hyperactive cytochrome P450 system due to excessive alcohol/drug use
-
How does a person react to drugs with a hypertrophied SER?
-
What common class of drugs can induce SER Hypertrophy?
Barbituates
-
If a person is taking barbituates for convulsion and starts to drink, what will be the result?
Less effectivity and uptake of barbituates b/c it shares the system with alcohol
-
What is the physiological response for the myometrium of the uterus to hormones?
Hypertrophy
-
What adaptation occurs in breasts?
Hyperplasia
-
What causes hyperplasia of breasts?
hormones
-
What types of cells adapt via hyperplasia?
Labile: epithelial and bone marrow cells
-
What organ adapts via compensatory (regeneration) hyperplasia?
Liver via GFs
-
How does the endometrium of the uterus adapt?
Hyperplasia, estrogen
-
How does the prostate gland adapt?
Hyperplasia, DHT
-
What stimulates erythroid hyperplasia (aka erythropoietin)?
hypoxia
-
What is polycythemia?
increased RBC count
-
What hormone causes Adrenal and thyroid gland hyperplasia?
- Adrenal: ACTH
- Thyroid: TSH
-
What are four GF mediated pathologic hyperplasia examples and their causes?
- 1) Keloid scar: fibroblasts
- 2) Hypertrophic scar: Myofibroblasts
- 3) Viral warts: HPV
- 4) Psoriasis: cytokines, epidermal squamous cells
-
Where are the two places in the human body where cancer and hyperplasia can exist?
-
What is the most common form of Atrophy?
Disuse atrophy
-
T/F cells cannot recover from atrophy?
F, they can recover
-
What are the two methods of cell loss during atrophy?
-
What areas of the body are affected by endocrine atrophy?
- Breast
- Endometrium of uterus
- vaginal epithelium
- Adrenal cortex (lack of ACTH)
-
What is a sign of denervation atrophy?
grouped atrophy of mm
-
What type of atrophy is caused by Charcot marie tooth syndrome?
Denervation atrophy
-
What type of atrophy is a hereditary loss of motor neurons?
SMA: Spinal muscle atrophy (Werdnig-Hoffman)
-
What atrophy is caused by Polio? what is destroyed?
- Denervation atrophy
- Anterior horn cells destroyed
-
T/F bilateral atrophy is caused by a hormone change?
T
-
What type of atrophy does atherosclerosis cause?
Blood loss atrophy
-
T/F Blood loss atrophy is unilateral?
T (but can be bilateral if full occlusion)
-
What are two causes of blood loss atrophy?
- 1) Pressure: tumor, twisting of testes, etc...
- 2) diminished blood supply: injury, atherosclerosis, ischemia
-
What type of atrophy are Marasmus and Cachexia? Causes?
- Inadequate Nutrition Atrophy
- Marasmus: autophagy from protein malnutrition
- Cachexia: TNF alpha, inflammation, cancer
-
What are the two mechanisms of Atrophy?
- 1) ubiquitin-proteosome path (high in infection of HIV, TB and cancer)
- 2) Autophagy: digest cytoplasmic organelles in lysosomes
-
What are two remnants of autophagy?
- 1) residual bodies
- 2) Lipofuscin pigment
-
What are the 2 causes of Metaplasia?
-
If a muscle is injured, what type of metaplasia will occur?
- Myositis ossificans: fibroblasts will form bone b/c mm can't regenerate
- ** AKA Osseus metaplasia
-
What is the most common metaplasia?
Fat metaplasia
-
Within cells, what is the most common metaplasia?
Squamous metaplasia (from glandular or columnar cells)
-
What is columnar (glandular) metaplasia?
Squamous cells replaced by columnar cells
-
What organ is affected by columnar metaplasia? Why?
- Esophagus, acid reflux
- * Barrett's esophagus
-
Why does glandular metaplasia occur?
To help produce more mucous in the air and food tracts of the body
-
What are the three pathways of cell death?
- Necrosis: Pathologic
- Apoptosis: Path and physiologic
- Autophagy
-
What are the characteristics of the three styles of cell death?
- 1) Necrosis: lipases, proteases and lysosome material released to rupture cell
- 2) Autophagy: Lysosome degradation
- 3) Apoptosis: cellular blebbing due to shrinkage
-
What regulates autophagy?
Autophage genes, ATGs
-
what cell injury occurs when ATP is depleted and oxidative phosphorylation is decreased?
reversible cell injury
-
What cellular changes occur during a reversible cell injury?
- 1) swelling
- 2) fatty vacuoles appear (steatosis)
-
What happens to mitochondria during reversible cellular injury?
Mitochondrial densities
-
what color does a cell going through reversible cell injury appear? Why?
- Pink
- Due to polysomes being released into cytoplasm and eiosinophilic dye
-
when is cellular injury irreversible? (3 reasons)
- 1) mitochondrial dysfunction
- 2) membrane lost
- 3) nuclear dissolution
-
What occurs at the end of an irreversible cellular injury?
Necrosis
-
What are two methods of necrosis?
- 1) Autolysis
- 2) lysosomal enzymes from leukocytes from inflammation
-
What are the three nuclear morphologies of Necrosis?
- 1) Karyolysis: fading of nucleus
- 2) Nuclear pyknosis: shrinking of nucleus
- 3) Karyorrhexis: destruction of pyknotic nucleus
-
Name the six types of Necrosis?
- 1) Gangrenous: wet and dry
- 2) Coagulative: membranes present
- 3) Caseous: cottage cheese
- 4) Fatty:
- 5) Fibrinoid:
- 6) Liquefactive: lipases degrading, no membranes
-
What kind of necrosis is acute tubular necrosis of kidney? What is present?
Coagulative (cell membranes still present)
-
What type of necrosis is commin in MI?
Coagulative necrosis due to occlusion
-
An infarction will always lead to what type of necrosis?
Coagulative necrosis
-
What cells clear coagulative necrosis?
Phagocytes?
-
When does Liquefactive necrosis occur?
- Stroky/CNS hypoxia
- Abscesses from infection
-
What degrades liquefactive necrosis?
Inflammatory cells
-
What necrosis occurs in the brain? Why?
- Liquefactive
- This occurs b/c coagulation cannot stay around due to lack of fibroblasts
-
What causes gangrenous necrosis?
infection and ischemia
-
Diff b/t dry and wet gangrenous necrosis?
- Dry: ischemia predominates
- Wet: ischemia and infection together
-
three common signs of caseous necrosis?
- Cavitates
- TB
- macrophage granulomas
-
Two types of Fat Necrosis?
- Traumatic: injury or surgery to fatty tissue
- Enzymatic: Lipases released from pancreas
-
Common organ affected by Fat Necrosis?
Breasts
-
What is Fibrinoid Necrosis?
Immune mediated blood vessel damage, Eiosinophils in cell walls
-
What causes ATP to deplete?
Hypoxia
-
Four cellular problems when ATP depletes?
- 1) Na enters cell = K leaves = water enters = swelling
- 2) Glycolosis = increase in lactic acid = decrease pH
- 3) loss or ribosomes = lack of proteins = lack of APO for shipping fat = fat buildup in cell
- 4) Protein folding abnormal
-
Which occurs faster, ischemia or hypoxia?
Ischemia
-
What is the main cause of hypoxia?
Shock due to decreased systemic perfusion
-
Two main problems of full ischemia?
- ATP depletion = swelling
- CK/Troponin released into body
-
five common causes of mitochondrial damage
- Hypoxia
- Drugs/Toxins
- increased cellular calcium
- oxidative stress
- genetic disposition
-
After mitochondrial damage, what causes Necrosis and Apoptosis?
- Necrosis: lack of ATP production
- Apoptosis: cytochrome C released from pores
-
How does calcium increase occur in cells?
- Release of sequestered calcium
- influx b/c of pores that are not functioning
-
What molecules disrupt plasma membranes making them permeable to Calcium?
-
What metabolic system can increase free radicals?
oxidation/reduction of oxygen in peroxisomes
|
|
