biology clep.txt

anything takes up space and has mass

substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance

an element indispensable for life but required in extremely minimum amounts

smallest unit of matter that retains property of an element

an electrically neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom

a subatomic particle with single positive charge found in nucleus of an atom

a subatomic particle with a single negative charge; one or more electrons move around the nucleus

one of several atomic forms of an element each containing different number of neutrons and different in atomic mass

the electrons in the outermost electron shell

an attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atom; the bonded atoms gain compounds outer electron shells

a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons

a type of covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. the shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom. making one slightly negative and the other slightly positive

the attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond

a negatively charged ion

an ion with a positive charge produced by the loss of one or more electrons

a type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecules is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent in another bond

the binding together of like molecules often by hydrogen bonds

the attraction between different kinds of molecules

a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. It is energy in most random form

a measure of the intensity of heat in degrees reflecting molecules average kinetic energy

the amount of heat that must be absorbed lost for one gram of a substance to change its temperature by one degree

a homogeneous mixture of two or more substance (liquid)

dissolving agent of a solution

a substance that is dissolved in a solution

a solution in which water is the solvent

a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

having an affinity to water

having aversion to water tend to coalesce and form droplets of water

A measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log [H+] and ranging in value from 0 to 14.

A substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution.

Rain, snow, or fog that is more acidic than pH 5.6.

The study of carbon compounds (organic compounds).

An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.

One of several organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties. The three types are structural , geometric and enantiomers.

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms.

Molecules that are mirror images of each other.

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.

A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.

A functional group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.

An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton.

An organic compound with a carbonyl group of which the carbon atom is bonded to two other carbons.

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.

A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of +1.

A functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (—SH).

A functional group important in energy transfer.

A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.

A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water; also called dehydration reaction.

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water; an essential process in digestion.

A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).

The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of are generally some multiple of CH2O.

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages.

A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.

A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.

A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.

A polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

constructed from glycerol and fatty acids

An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins.

A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.

The covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction

One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds.

For proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. For DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature.

A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.

A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.

A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.

One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.

One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are pyrimidines.

One of several formed bodies with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

A microscope that focuses an electron beam through a specimen, resulting in resolving power a thousandfold greater than that of a light microscope. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to study the internal structure of thin sections of cells. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the fine details of cell surfaces.

The disruption of a cell and separation of its organelles by centrifugation.

A machine that spins test tubes at the fastest speeds to separate liquids and particles of different densities.

The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.

A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.

The entire contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus, and bounded by the plasma membrane.

The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.

(1) An atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons. (2) The chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell. (3) A cluster of neurons.

A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus.

The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing,exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.

A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis.

A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.

One of a family of closely related plant organelles, including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts (leucoplasts).

A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development.

A membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell, separating the cytosol from the cell sap

An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration.

An organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.

(plural, cristae) An infolding of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electron transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.

A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis

The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.

A network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that branch throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical and transport functions.

Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule-organizing center.

A long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion, formed from a core of nine outer doublet microtubules and two inner single microtubules, ensheathed in an extension of plasma membrane.

A short cellular appendage specialized for locomotion, formed from a core of nine outer doublet microtubules and two inner single microtubules ensheathed in an extension of plasma membrane.

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.

A protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and some protists. In plant cells, the wall is formed of cellulose fibers embedded in a polysaccharide-protein matrix. The primary cell wall is thin and flexible, whereas the secondary cell wall is stronger and more rigid and is the primary constituent of wood.

The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded consisting of protein and polysaccharides.

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.

A specialized structure in the nucleus, formed from various chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes.

A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.

An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions.

A protein covalently attached to a carbohydrate.

An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum.

A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.

A membrane-enclosed bag of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances.

(the ability to allow some sub. to cross the plasma membrane more easily) A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.

Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.

Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.

The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.

An increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across their membranes. When a gradient exists, the ions or other chemical substances involved tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated

The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane

In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration.

In comparing two solutions, the one with a lower solute concentration.

Having the same solute concentration as another solution.

The control of water balance in organisms living in hypertonic, hypotonic, or terrestrial environments.

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Firm. Walled cells become turgid as a result of the entry of water from a hypotonic environment.

Limp. Walled cells are limp in isotonic surroundings, where there is no tendency for water to enter.

A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment

The spontaneous passage of molecules and ions, bound to specific carrier proteins, across a biological membrane down their concentration gradients

(water channel proteins that facilitate the amount of diffusion)A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane (osmosis).

A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.

The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.

A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.

The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential.

An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that consumes ATP to force hydrogen ions out of a cell and, in the process, generates a membrane potential

The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.

The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.

The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.

A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances.

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

An ion transport protein generating voltage across the membrane.

chromatin, nucleolus, nuclear envelope--> directs protein synthesis by synthesizing RNA (mRNA) and sending it to the cytoplasm via nuclear pores-->the mRNA is made according to instruction provided by DNA --> mRNA reaches cytoplasm ribosomes translate the genetic message into polypeptide

organization of DNA and proteins into fibrous material

specialized structure in special type of RNA, ribosomal RNA, is synthesized + assembled w/ proteins imported from cytoplasm into main components of ribsomal subunits which pass nuclear portes to cytoplasm where they combine to form ribosomes

double membrane perforated by pores which regulate entry and exit of certain macromolecules and particles

use info, from the DNA to make proteins and carry out protein synthesis

suspended in cytosol which will function in cytosol (ex:enzymes)

attached to outside of ER or nuclear envelope- proteins that are destined for insertion into membranes or packaging certain organelles (ex: lysosome)

network of membrane sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes

synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells) involves adding hydroxyl groups to drugs to make soluble and easier to flush from body

sythesis of secretory proteins (glycoproteins) specialized cells secrete proteins produced by rough ER ribosomes and membrane production

center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, and shipping products are usually modified during their transit from the cis pole to the trans pole

golgi appartus--> usually located near the ER a vesicle that buds from the ER will add its membrane and the contents of its lumen,cavity, to this face

golgi apparatus--> gives rise to vesicles which pinch off and travel to other sites

digestive compartments (macromolecules) carry out intracellular digestion . Use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's own organic material (autophagy)

sites of cellular respiration the catbolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats + other fuels w/ oxygens help

sites of photosynthesis. convert solar energy--> chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO2 and H20

generate and degrade H2O2 in performing various metabolic functions transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen and they produce H2O2. Use O to break fatty acids that can be sent to mitochondria

organizing the structures and activities of cells

maintenance of cell shape (compression resisting girders) cell motility organelle and chromosome movement

actin (tension bearing elements ) muscle contraction

anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina

region where cells microtubules are initiated

composed of nine sets of triplet microtubule arrange in a ring

function in support, adhesion, movement, and regulation (glycoproteins) collagen most abundant in animal cells

membranes of neighboring cells are actually fused forming continuous belts around cell to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid

function like rivets fastening cells together into strong sheets Intermediate filaments reinforce this

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells

Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions .

The arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological membranes is described by the

splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. When a freeze-fracture preparation is viewed with an electron microscope, protein particles are interspersed in a smooth matrix, supporting the fluid mosaic model.

are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all. Instead, the are loosely bound to the surface of the protein, often connected to integral proteins

penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, often completely spanning the membrane (as transmembrane proteins).

1. Transport of specific solutes into or out of cells. 2. Enzymatic activity, sometimes catalyzing one of a number of steps of a metabolic pathway 3. Signal transduction, relaying hormonal messages to the cell. 4. Cell-cell recognition, allowing other proteins to attach two adjacent cells together 5. Intercellular joining of adjacent cells with gap or tight junctions 6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix, maintaining cell shape and stabilizing the location of certain membrane proteins.

the ability of a cell to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another is crucial to the functioning of an organism carbohydrates are important for this

span the membrane 1. channel proteins which have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel through the membrane (aquaporins facilitate the passage of water through the membrane) 2. carrier proteins bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane

the tendency of molecules of any substance to spread out in the available space it is driven by intrinsic kinetic energy (thermal motion or heat) of molecules

• the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane because it require no energy from the cell to make it happen
• the concentration gradient represents potential energy and drives fusion

an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area -->substances tend to move form where there are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated

the passive transport of water; diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; the direction of osmosis is determined only by a difference in total solute concentration ; the kind of solutes in the solution do not matter

the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient via transport proteins

many ion channels function as gated channels these channels open or close depending on the presence or absence of a chemical or physical stimulus

uses energy to move solutes against their gradients; requires the cell to expend metabolic energy; enables a cell to maintain its internal concentrations of small molecules that would otherwise diffuse across he membrane ; ATP supplies the energy for active transport

ATP can power active transport by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to the transport protein. This may induce a conformation change in the transport proteins translocating the solute across the membrane

actively maintains the gradient of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) across the plasma membrane of animal cells . K+ concentration is low outside animal cell and high inside the cell. Na+ concentration is high outside an animal cell and low inside the cell. the sodium potassium pump maintains these concentration gradients using the energy of one ATP to pump three Na+ out and two K+ in

electrical potential energy due to the separation of opposite charges

voltage across a membrane. ranges from -50 to -200 millivolts. inside of cell negative compared to the outside

drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane 1. chemical force based on an ions concentration gradient. 2. the other is an electrical force based on the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement ion diffuses down its electrochemical gradient

special transport proteins that generate the voltage gradient across a membrane an example is the Na+-K+ pump restores the electrochemical gradient not only by the active transport of Na+ and K+ setting up a concentration gradien but because it pumps 2 K+ for every 3 Na+ setting up a voltage across membrane

in plants bacteria and fungi it is the major electrogenic pump actively transporting H+ out of the cell

a single ATP powered pump that transports one solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in this mechanism as the solute that has been actively transported diffuses back passively through a transport protein its movement can be coupled with the active transport of another substance against its concentration gradient

the cell engulfs a particle by extending psedopodia around it and packaging it in a large vacuole

a cell creates a vesicle around a droplet of extracellular fluid

(1) The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. See first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics. (2) A phenomenon in which external DNA is taken up by a cell and functions there.

The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

The principle whereby every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat, and in spontaneous reactions, the free energy of the system also decreases.

A quantitative measure of disorder or randomness, symbolized by S.

The portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature is uniform throughout the system.

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy

A nonspontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings

An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.

In cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction.

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

A chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start.

The reactant on which an enzyme works

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.

The specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds.

The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate, induced by entry of the substrate.

Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.

An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function in important metabolic reactions.

A specific receptor site on some part of an enzyme molecule remote from the active site.

A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.

A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.

A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction

The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

The addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction.

The electron donor in a redox reaction.

The electron acceptor in a redox reaction.

a coenzyme present in all cells that helps enzymes transfer electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

The splitting of glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis is the one metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells, serving as the starting point for fermentation or aerobic respiration

A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain.

The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.

The entry compound for the Krebs cycle in cellular respiration; formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.

An iron-containing protein, a component of electron transport chains in mitochondria and chloroplasts

A cluster of several membrane proteins found in the mitochondrial crista (and bacterial plasma membrane) that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent electron transport chains, using the energy of a hydrogen ion concentration gradient to make ATP. Provide a port through which hydrogen ions diffuse into the matrix of a mitrochondrion.

The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.

Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen.

Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it.

The conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.

The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions.

A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments which enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA.

An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from the oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones.

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

A green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants. Chlorophyll a can participate directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.

The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, evolving oxygen in the process.

The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving atmospheric CO2 fixation and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate.

An acceptor that temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions.

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

The distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The entire spectrum of radiation ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer.

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wavelength from about 380 nm to about 750 nm.

A quantum, or discrete amount, of light energy.

An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.

The range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light.

A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions.

A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.

A profile of the relative performance of different wavelengths of light.

An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.

The chlorophyll a molecule and the primary electron acceptor in a photosystem; they trigger the light reactions of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll donates an electron, excited by light energy, to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain.

A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the chlorophyll a molecule; it accepts an electron from the chlorophyll a molecule.

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P700 reaction-center chlorophyll.

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll.

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.

A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.

A loosely arranged photosynthetic cell located between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface.

A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. Carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted into organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed.

The production of ATP by noncyclic electron flow.

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen

The generation of ATP by cyclic electron flow.

Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).

A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.

A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle.

reproduction of cells

sequence of events in the life of a cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two composed of M, G1, S, and G2 phases

complete complement of organisms genes; genetic material

gene carrying structure found in nucleus- consists of 1 very long DNA molecules and associated proteins

any cell in multicellular organism except an egg or sperm

sex cells (haploid cells; egg or sperm) unite to form a diploid zygote

complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome

replicated forms of chromosomes joined together by the centromere and separated during mitosis and meiosis II

centralized region that joins the two sister chromatids

nuclear division process; prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophse

the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells after mitosis

a two stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organims that results in cells with half the chromosomes number of the original cells

phase of cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokenisis

period when cell cycle when cell is not dividing- cell metabolic activity is high, chromsomes and organelles are duplicated and cell size may increase. 90% of cell cycle

first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase, after DNA synthesis occurs

the second growth face of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs

synthesis phase of cell cycle; portion of interphase which DNA is replicated

the first subphase of mitosis in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begins to form but the nucleolus and nucleus are still in intact

a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell between which the new cell wall forms during cytokenisis

The second subphase of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

3rd subphase in mitosis; spindle is complete and the chromosomes attached to microtubules at their kinetochores are aligned at he metaphase plate

fourth subphase of mitosis in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell

the fifth and final subphase of mitosis in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokenisis actually begins

an assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis

a specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle

prokaryotes cell division . Each daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome

cytokenisis process; pinching of the plasma membrane; the succession of rapid cell division without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cell

a cyclically operating set of molecultes in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle

a non dividing face of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins

a regularity protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically

a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells

any factor that has a greater impact on a population as the population increases

the conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell.

a mass of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue, caused by the uncontrolled growth of a transformed cell

a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin

cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair function of one or more organs

the spread of cancer to locations distant form original site

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

Differences between members of the same species.

The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation.

A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.

A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.

(1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage, a single individual organism that is genetically identical to another individual. (3) As a verb, to make one or more genetic replicas of an individual or cell. See also gene cloning.

The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.

Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.

A method of organizing the chromosomes of a cell in relation to number, size, and type.

Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother.

The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during synapsis of meiosis I.

One of the pair of chromosomes responsible for determining the sex of an individual

A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).

The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.

A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.

A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants.

The multicellular diploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations that results from a union of gametes and that meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation.

The multicellular haploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations that mitotically produces haploid gametes that unite and grow into the sporophyte generation.

The pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

A paired set of homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids. Tetrads form during prophase I of meiosis.

The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.

A heritable feature.

A characteristic

Plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate.

The mating, or crossing, of two varieties.

The parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance; P stands for parental.

The first filial, or hybrid, offspring in a genetic cross-fertilization.

Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.

In a heterozygote, the allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype.

In a heterozygote, the allele that is completely masked in the phenotype.

A phenotypic situation in which the two alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways

A type of inheritance in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.

Mendel's first law, stating that allele pairs separate during gamete formation, and then randomly re-form as pairs during the fusion of gametes at fertilization.

A diagram used in the study of inheritance to show the results of random fertilization.

Having two identical alleles for a given trait.

Having two different alleles for a given genetic character

The physical and physiological traits of an organism.

The genetic makeup of an organism

An organism that is heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest. A monohybrid results from a cross between parents homozygous for different alleles. For example, parents of genotypes AA and aa produce a monohybrid genotype of Aa.

Mendel's second law, stating that each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation; applies when genes for two characteristics are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes.

A type of inheritance in which F1 hybrids have an appearance that is intermediate between the phenotypes of the parental varieties

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

A phenomenon in which one gene alters the expression of another gene that is independently inherited

A heritable feature in a population that varies continuously as a result of environmental influences and the additive effect of two or more genes (polygenic inheritance).

An additive effect of two or more gene loci on a single phenotypic character.

A family tree describing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring across as many generations as possible.

A genetic disorder that occurs in people with two copies of a certain recessive allele; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.

A human genetic disease of red blood cells caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; it is the most common inherited disease among African Americans.

A technique for determining genetic abnormalities in a fetus by the presence of certain chemicals or defective fetal cells in the amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus.

A basic principle in biology stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.

An individual with the normal phenotype.

A gene located on a sex chromosome.

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.

Genes that are located on the same chromosome.

The general term for the production of offspring with new combinations of traits inherited from the two parents.

Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.

A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes. The greater the frequency of recombination between two genetic markers, the farther apart they are assumed to be. See also genetic map.

Charts of chromosomes that locate genes with respect to chromosomal features.

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele, characterized by excessive bleeding following injury.

An accident of meiosis or mitosis, in which the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to move apart properly.

A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be trisomic for that chromosome.

A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be monosomic for that chromosome.

A chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets.

An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens; duplication of a portion of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome.

An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or from mutagens; specifically, reattachment of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome from which the fragment originated, but in a reverse orientation.

A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome.

(1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.

A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage. See phage.

The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.

Sites where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.

An enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.

The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' 3' direction.

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in a direction away from the replication fork.

A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 39 end of a new DNA fragment to the 59 end of a growing chain.

An already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis.

An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.

A team of enzymes that hydrolyze DNA and RNA into their component nucleotides

The cellular process that uses special enzymes to fix incorrectly paired nucleotides.

A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.

The protective structure at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome. Specifically, the tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of the chromosome's DNA molecule. See also repetitive DNA.

The synthesis of RNA on a DNA template.

A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.

The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of "language" from nucleotides to amino acids

Modification of RNA before it leaves the nucleus, a process unique to eukaryotes.

An initial RNA transcript; also called pre-mRNA.

A set of three-nucleotide-long words that specify the amino acids for polypeptide chains.

The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript.

A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.

A special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene

unit, a region of a DNA molecule that is transcribed into an RNA molecule

The removal of noncoding portions (introns) of the RNA molecule after initial synthesis.

A noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene.

A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons, which are expressed, are separated from each other by introns.

A complex assembly that interacts with the ends of an RNA intron in splicing RNA, releasing the intron, and joining the two adjacent exons.

A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits.

A taxonomic category above the kingdom level. The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.

An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA.

A specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.

The most abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins, forms the structure of ribosomes. Ribosomes coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to mRNA codons.

An aggregation of several ribosomes attached to one messenger RNA molecule.

A change in a gene at a single nucleotide pair

A point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides.

The most common type of mutation, a base-pair substitution in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.

A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the following nucleotides into codons.

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.

(1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complete in shape.

A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.

The building blocks of all matter.

results of the structure of atoms and their interactions with each other.

A substance that can't be broken down into any other substance. The simplest form of an element is an atom.

Positive charged particles in the nucleus of an atom.

Neutral charged particles in the nucleus of an atom.

Negative charged particles of an atom. They orbit the nucleus. They have much less mass than protons and neutrons.

Center of an atom. The number of protons in the nucleus is the same as the atomic number on the periodic table of elements.

An atom that has the same number of protons and electrons.

Also referred to as the electron shell and orbital. It is the 3 dimensional space that electron orbit the nucleus.

The amount of energy in a electron cloud. The weakest level is the shell closest to the nucleus. As the shell gets stronger more electrons may fill it. Electron fill the shell closest to the nucleus.

The last shell of the electron cloud. Atoms are more stable when this shell is full.

a chemical bond between atoms when they share electrons between their valence shells. These are the strongest chemical bonds.

A Covalent bond.

two or more atoms held together by a covalent bond.

When two or more atoms form a unique substance via a chemical bond. Water is an example.

A charged atom. More protons that electrons makes a positive ion and more electrons than protons makes a negative ion.

When positive and negative ions are attracted to each other. Weaker than a covalent bond. Table salt is an ionic bond.

molecules that have regions of a partial charge. Water molecules have a positive hydrogen charge.

The force of attraction between water molecules that hold them together . A weak chemical bond.

When two or more molecules react with each other to form one or more moleculte types.

The reacting molecules of a chemical reaction.

The result of a chemical reaction.

In a chemical reaction when a compound breaks down into components

When compounds combine.

When a compund breaks apart and forms a new compund with a free reactant.

A reaction that requires energy

A reaction that produces energy

That matter and energy is neither created nor destroyed.

All reaction spread energy which tend to diminish it's availability.

Water.

A chemical that donates protons when dissolved in water. Below 7 on the pH scale

A chemical that accepts protons when dissolved in water. Above 7 on the pH scale.

Acids and bases. When combined in water they produce water and a salt (ionic compound)

compounds that contain carbon.

contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosporus, and some metal ions.

Made of Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The Ratio of H and O is always 2:1. Just like water.

A type of carbohydrate

A type of carbohydrate

The basic sugar unit.

six carbon sugars. The most commone monosaccharide. They are usually ring shaped.

When two monosaccharide units form together. Glucose and fructose make table sugar. A water molecule is liberated when one is formed.

When threee monosaccharide's combine.

When four or more monosaccharide's combine.

A polysaccharide. Plant's store starches in their cell's for future energy. Also used for structure in a plant's cell. The most common is cellulose

Most common starch in a plant cell. It is a long chain of water insoluable polysaccharides

A polysaccharide made of joined glucose units. Used by many animals for short term energy. Found in muscle and liver tissue.

Organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Ratio of H to O is alway greater than 2:1. Includes waxes, steroids, phospholipids, and fats.

form components of cel membranes.

provide a moisture barrier.

long term energy storage.

In every living cell. Large chains of amino acids.

a single amino acid

connected monomers (Amino Acids).

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur and phospoirus. 20 common amino acids that make thousands of different proteins.

The bond that holds monmers together to form polymers.

Another name for proteins. Nameds this because of the peptide bonds that monomers use to connect together.

A special protein. It functions as a catalyst for reactions

A substance that changes the speed of a reaction. The catalyst is not affected at all during this reaction. All catalyst end in -ase.

This is a catlyst. All catalysts end with this.

DNA and RNA. These are polymers (proteins)

Deoxyribonucleic acid. Two strands that pair up via a hydrogen bond. They form a double helix shape.

ribonucleic acid. Generally a single strand

monomers that form nucleic acids. Each one has a sugar group and a phosphate group with a nitrogen base.

sugare molecule in DNA

sugar molecule in RNA

The double helix model of DNA

Magnification is the ratio of an object's image size to its real size. Resolution is a measure of the clarity of the image and is the minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two points.

Membrane-bound compartments in a cell which cannot be resolved by a light microscope

Cell fractionation (instrument used is the centrifuge)

Appendix A

Appendix A

Plasma membrane (contains the cytosol), chromosomes, and ribosomes

Domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells

Protists, fungi, animals, and plants

In the nucleus; In the nucleoid

The interior of a prokaryotic cell or the region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell

Mycoplasmas, 0.1 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter

1-5 micrometers in diameter; 10-100 micrometers

Plasma membrane

Attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes

The region in a prokaryotic cell where most of the cell's DNA is located and not enclosed by a membrane

Complexes that synthesize proteins; free in the cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope

Rigid structure outside the plasma membrane

Jellylike outer coating of many prokaryotes

Locomotion organelles of some bacteria

In the cytoplasm

The nucleus

A network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome-studded) and smooth regions

Region where the cell's microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles

Reinforces cell's shape, functions in cell movement; components are made of protein and includes: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

Projections that increase the cell's surface area

Organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water

Double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with the ER

Structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli

Material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing cell

Organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and excretion of cell products

Digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolized

Organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated

• 1. Lysosomes
• 2. Centrosomes, with centrioles
• 3. Flagella (but present in some plant sperm)

Organelles present in plant cells, the most important of which are chloroplasts

Outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein

Prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth

Photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules

Channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells

• 1. Chloroplasts
• 2. Central vacuole
• 3. Cell wall
• 4. Plasmodesmata

A complex of proteins and DNA that make up chromosomes

A typical human cell has 46 chromosomes in its nucleus, the exceptions being the germ cells which have only 23 chromosomes

Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol and bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. Bound ribosomes generally make proteins that are destined for insertion into membranes, for packaging within certain organelles (such as lysosomes), or for export from the cell (secretion). Cells that specialize in protein secretion frequently have a high proportion of bound ribosomes

Carries out tasks within the cell, including: synthesis of proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons

• 1. Nuclear envelope
• 2. Endoplasmic reticulum
• 3. Golgi apparatus
• 4. Lysosomes
• 5. Various kinds of vacuoles
• 6. Plasma membrane

This says that all living things are made of cells, that cells are the basic unit of structure and function and that cells only come from other cells.

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid

group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon

synonym for protein; chain of amino acids

chromosomes

organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves through self-pollination

the different forms of a gene

organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait

organisms that have two different alleles for the same trait

physical characteristics

states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes and helps account for the many genetic variations observed in plants, animals, and other organisms

when one allele is not completly dominant over another

when both alleles contribute to the phenotype

term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent

a cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes

a cell that has one set of homologous chromosomes, a cell that has a single set of chromosomes and therefore only 1 set of genes

a process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell

Macromolecules made mainly from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; includes fats, oils, and waxes; used for long-term storage of energy and carbon, and for building structural parts of cell membranes; fatty acids and glycerol make up the simple fats most common in our diets

Lipids containing a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains; chemical form in which most fats exist in food and in the body

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms; tend to be oily liquids at room temperature; found in plants

a lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms; tend to be solid at room temperature; found in animals

A lipid made of a phosphate group and two fatty acids; consists of a hydrophilic polar head and two non-polar hydrophobic tails; forms cell membranes.

Macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth, repair, and to make up enzymes; a polymer made of amino acids

Compounds with an amino group (-NH₂) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end; the monomers that make up a protein

A protein that is used as a catalyst (speeds up a chemical reaction)

A covalent bond between the acid group of one molecule and the amino group of another.

Carbon-containing compounds. Important examples include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

For the most part, compounds containing no carbon. There are some exceptions such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and others.

Organic compound used by the cells of the human body in energy-producing reactions and as structural material. The three main types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

The size of a cell is limited by the ratio of its surface area to volume.

...the surface area of the plasma membrane maintains a balance with the volume of the cytoplasm.

...secretes saliva which enters the digestive tract and aids the digestive process.

Studied the relationships between traits expressed in parents and offspring and the genes that caused the traits to be expressed.

...a populations large enough to ensure successful reproduction, a food source, a suitable habitat, and a source of moisture.

Are cells involved in immunity and are produced in bone marrow as stem cells.

Produce antibodies into the bloodstream that find and attach themselves to foreign antigens (toxins, bacteria).

Some patrol the blood for antigens, but are also equipped to destroy antigens. They may regulate immune responses as well.

...because ecological niches open up, making conditions favorable for the establishment of new, diverse species.

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

Chordata

Is the process that releases energy for use by the cell.

Is weaker than ionic, covalent, disulfide, or double bonds.

the attraction of atoms of different polarity and can be easily broken.

the transfer of electrons.

share electrons.

Are more closely related to Homo Sapiens than to other apes, but Homo Sapiens did not evolve from chimpanzees.

...the lineage that led to the modern Homo Sapiens diverged from the lineage that led to the modern chimpanzee.

Is more like branching out of a tree with dead ends and new branches appearing simultaneously than like steps on a ladder.

Stood upright before there was an increase in brain size.

of Homo Sapiens did not evolve together.

are from continents other than North America.

digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid, and gastric juices which aid in digestion. The mucous secreted by the stomach protects the stomach lining from the acids and juices.

Protista

through nitrogen fixing bacteria and lighting.

it is said to be in an isotonic state.

are produced when water passes through the cell membrane by osmosis from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, to equalize water concentration.

will increase the reaction rate as the concentration of substrate is increased until all the enzymes are used, then the reaction rate will level off.

Is a special protein that acts as a catalyst for organic reactions.

is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction without being affected itself.

Contain one celled eukaryotes such as algae and protozoa.

contain organisms that are multicellular eukaryotes including vertebrates and invertebrates.

contains organisms that are multicellular eukaryotes including molds and mushrooms.

contains multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms including gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Energy transformations that occur as chemicals are broken down or synthesized within the cell.

breaking down

synthesis

a reaction that adds water to another compound. (2 hydrogens, 1 oxygen).

must be present for photosynthesis to occur, it is not used up in the process.

absorb a photon of light and is found in the grana of the chloroplast.

produces the most ATP molecules, yielding 34 ATPs per glucose molecule.

are easily converted to ATP, but the main energy products of the Krebs cycle liberate electrons then used in the electron transfer reactions.

chlorophyll pigments absorb photons of light, leaving the chlorophyll in a higher energy (excited) state, these then supply energy to reactions that produce ATP from ADP and Pi.

Inorganic phosphate

is an accidental change of the DNA sequence of the gene that can result in creating a change of trait that is not found in the parent.

proposes that those individuals within a population that are most adapted to the environment are also the most likely individuals to produce viable offspring.

states that where random mating is occurring within a population that is in equilibrium with its environment, the gene frequencies and genotype ratios will remain constant from generation to generation. It is a mathematical formula that shows why recessive genes do not disappear over time from a population.

occurs when two populations are geographically isolated from each other. Over time this results in the production of two separate species.

an individual from an adjacent population of the same species immigrates and breeds with a member of a previously locally isolated group, resulting in a change in the gene pool.

is the control of protein synthesis. Genetic traits are expressed and specialization of cells occur as a result of the combination of proteins produced by the DNA of a cell.

allows for the genetic code to be preserved in future generations of cells.

is when expression of genetic traits is determined by weather the trait is inherited from the mother or the father.

the preservation of the integrity of genetic information from one generation to another.

the systematic search for individuals with a specific genotype in a delineated population.

Cytosine

Adenine

is the period when the cell is active in carrying on the function it was designed to perform within the organism. Cells spend much more time in interphase than in cell division.

are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes that digest dead or unused material within the cell or materials absorbed by the cell for use.

where protein synthesis occurs. They float unattached in the cytoplasm. They contain RNA that is specific to their function in protein formation.

Protein synthesis

are formed when the plasma membrane of a cell encloses a molecule outside the membrane, then releases a membrane bound sack containing the desired molecule into the cytoplasm. This process allows the cell to absorb molecules that are larger in size than would be able to pass through the cell membrane.

contains the chromosomes and is the site of reproduction through mitosis and meiosis.

are tubes constructed of a geometrical arrangement of microtubules in a pinwheel shape. Their function includes the formation of new microtubules, but is primarily to form the structural skeleton around which cells split during mitosis and meiosis.

is a molecule that stores information for protein synthesis and genetic coding.

all store energy within their chemical bonds.

engages in both passive and active transport.

is a compound fruit that develops from many ovaries of a single flower fusing together (raspberry).

is a compound fruit that forms from several ovaries of separate flowers that fuse together during ripening (strawberry, or pineapple).

fruits that develop from a single ripened ovary (apple, olive, acorn, cucumber).

Covers and protects the leaf.

vascular tissue, including both xylem and phloem, and sieve plates existing between cells of the stem.

is an ion that binds to an enzyme making it more able to catalyze a reaction.

may be ions or non-protein molecules, they are similar to cofactors, but differ in that they are tightly attached by covalent bonds to the enzyme, rather than being separate atoms or molecules.

attaches to an enzyme and blocks the enzyme reaction rather than enhancing it, like a prosthetic group would.

is made of stacked cells connected by sieve plates that allow nutrients to pass from cell to cell. They transport food made in the leaves (by photosynthesis) to the rest of the plant).

transfers water and does not require sieve plates to allow nutrients through.

is found in the root cap and is responsible for quick growth in the roots.

is found on the stem between nodes.

is the outermost of the three main layers of an embryo.

transparency, polarity, high specific heat, and density (lower density when solid than when liquid.).

approximately 7, making it neither basic (under 7) nor alkaline (over 7).

is the number of organisms that can be supported within a particular ecosystem.

refers to the birthrate of a population.

the number of organisms in a given community, can be above or below the carrying capacity.

is comprised of all the organisms that interact within a given ecosystem whether or not it is at carrying capacity.

includes all living and nonliving components of the Earth to support living things.

respiratory organs within insects

are filtered by the liver, mixed with broken down pigments in the bile, then bile is secreted into the small intestine, proceeds to the large intestine, and is expelled in the feces.

the process of forming eggs and sperm cells in the reproductive organs.

the destruction of gametes, (sex cells such as sperm and eggs).

The cells of a developing embryo (at the gastrula stage) differentiate into layers, that will later develop into different tissues and organs, including the mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm.

Between the endoderm and ectoderm, layer that will eventually form the muscles, and organs of the skeletal, circulatory, respiratory, reproductive, and excretory systems.

Layer that will become the gut lining as well as some accessory structures.

Layer that will become the skin, some endocrine glands, and the nervous system.

the solid mass of cells resulting from the cleavage of the ovum before the formation of a blastula.

develops from the morula as a thin layer of cells surrounding an internal cavity.

Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night. An organisms daily repeated behavior such as wake and sleep cycles that function according to its internal clock.

is a social behavior of an organism that is beneficial to the group at the individual's expense.

a type of innate behavior (instinct.) The FAP is a preprogrammed response to a particular stimulus (known as a releaser stimulus). FAP's include courtship behaviors and feeding of young. These are not learned behaviors, they are automatically performed without any prior experience.

occurs when an individual learns not to respond to a particular stimulus, for instance when a stimulus is repeated many times without consequence.

is a behavior that is learned during a critical point (often very early) in an individual's life. Imprinting enables the young the recognize members of their own species.

the physical place where a particular organism lives. It must include all the factors that will support its life and reproduction.

the role played by an organism in its food chain.

The part of the earth that contains all living things, including the atmosphere (air), the lithosphere (earth), and the hydrosphere (water).

a length of DNA (with corresponding histones) is responsible for the production of a certain protein that causes a particular trait to be expressed in an organism.

the total amount of genetic information available for a given species.

contains many genes and is a structure comprised of linear DNA and associated proteins.

are the monomers that form nucleic acids, containing a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

niche

biotic (living) factors such as population and food source, and abiotic (non-living) factors such as weather, temperature, soil features, sunlight).

are where the sugars synthesized by photosynthesis travel through to various parts of the plant.

veins in the leaf and are also distributed throughout the stem

is the outermost layer of cells of the stem.

consists of undifferentiated cells capable of quick growth and specialization. It is responsible for elongation of the stem.

has loosely packed cells that allow for gas and moisture exchange.

is the waxy protective outer coating of leaves.

Process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to another.

Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and water. These are all recycled through biogeochemical processes.

is the major component of sand and is the most abundant element found in the lithosphere. It is not recycled.

some energy is lost as heat and becomes unusable.

channels is cell membranes that carry water between cells.

becomes available for erosion as undersea sedimentary rocks are up-thrust by volcanic activity, erosion releases it from rocks into streams where it combines with oxygen to form phosphates in lakes that are then absorbed by plants, it is recycled through the food chain as animals consume plants and other animals, it is returned to the ground by animal waste.

is very rare and is not absorbed by plant leaves. Phosphorous is nearly always found in solid form.

is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with protein globules imbedded within the layers. The construction of the membrane allows it to aid the function of the cell by permitting entrance and exit of molecules as needed by the cell.

are the organelles where cellular respiration occurs.

is a packet of digestive enzymes that destroy cellular wastes.

is disorganized, unravelled, DNA with histones attached.

is the organelle where cellular reproductive processes occur.

the sharp boundary of an ecosystem.

is the earliest period of the Paleozoic era. Began with the Cambrian explosion, this explosion of life resulted in the representatives of most of the modern phyla being present.

subsets below the kingdom level

Fossilized burrows from multicellular organisms begin to appear in the geological record approximately 700 million years ago during the Precambrian period. These multicellular animals had only soft parts and could not be fossilized.

Ended with the extinction of the dinosaurs.

the most recent and present era. It includes the radiation of flowering plants, the angiosperms.

There was extensive radiation of fish during the Devonian and Silurian periods within the Paleozoic Era.

Mitochondria, they constitute the center of cellular respiration.

are surrounded by capillaries that allow for carbon dioxide to diffuse into the lungs and oxygen to diffuse out.

The trachea includes the windpipe or larynx in its upper portion, and the glottis, an opening that allows the gases to pass into the two branches known as the bronchi.

The bronchi lead to the two lungs where they branch out in all directions into smaller tubules known as bronchioles.

The vocal cords are found in the larynx.

The pharynx is between the nasal passage and the trachea. Air passes into the body via the nasal passage, then passes through the pharynx and on to the trachea.

The phylum of insects (bees).

the class composed of birds.

the phyla composed of segmented worms.

the phyla of round worms.

the phyla of sponges.

is a protein, which is a polymer of amino acids. They generally have the suffix -ase- like lactase.

is the sugar that lactase acts upon.

super-class of vertebrae including organisms with no jaws.

super-class of vertebrae including organisms with jaws.

is a kingdom that includes algae and protozoa.

is a phylum that contains jellyfish, hydra, etc.

is a phylum that contains sponges.

anabolism

the process whereby cells build molecules and store energy (in the form of covalent chemical bonds).

Process of breaking down complex materials (foods) to form simpler substances and release energy.

a suffix meaning "to break apart."

• C ---OH
• This is a carboxyl group and is the signature group found within organic acids.

provide rigidity to plant cells (and some bacteria) and are not found within animal cells.

nonvascular plants such as mosses which lack tissue for conducting food or water.

plants that produce flowers as reproductive organs. They have two divisions, monocots and dicots.

produce seeds without flowers. They include conifers (cone-bearers) and cycads.

an opportunistic life strategy strategy. Lichens invading a bare rock area after a volcanic eruption is an example.

controls sensory and motor responses, and controls memory, speech, and intelligence factors.

controls olfactory lobes (smell)

controls hunger and thirst

controls balance and muscle coordination

Contains optic lobes, controls sight.

developed by the German scientists Schleiden and Schwann

that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units of life, all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Bacteria break ammonia into nitrites, then into nitrates that are usable by plants; volcanic activity produces ammonia and nitrates that enter the soil and can be absorbed by plants; lightning reacts with atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrates that are absorbed by plants; nitrogen is recycled from dead organisms and reenters the food chain.

in both living and non-living environments.

destroy most enzymes.

so it can be used over and over again.

very specific to certain reactions.

non-protein component that is essential to their functions.

is a disease caused by lack of vitamin C in which the body is unable to build enough collagen (a major component of connective tissue).

is a coenzyme required in the synthesis of collagen.

are organic cofactors or coenzymes that are required by some enzymatic reactions.

the individual we recognize as an adult fern.

small, green, heart-shaped gametophyte plant form of a fern that can make its own food and absorb water and nutrients from the soil

has extreme cold temperatures, low precipitation, modified grassland, perma-frost, a short growing season and some plants and animals.

has extreme hot or cold temperatures, with very low precipitation, sandy or rocky terrain, sparse vegetation (mainly succulents), small animals, rodents, and reptiles.

is a kind of plain characterized by a warm climate, grassland, and seasonally dry climate conditions.

an orienting response to light.

phototropism. the hormone auxin, in response to light, migrates from the light to the dark side of the shoot tip. The cells on the dark side now contain more auxin, which causes the cells on that side to elongate more rapidly than cells on the light side. The result is that the plant bends toward the light.

assumes that there are periods of stability during which little evolutionary change occurs, and that speciation can occur rapidly over a very short period of time.

can be accounted for by the theory of punctuated equilibrium. The fossil record shows periods of stability with regard to appearance and disappearance of species as well as periods of sudden change.

has an equal (50%) chance of being passed from a carrier mother to a son or a daughter.

sex-linked recessive disorder carried on the x chromosome defined by the absence of one or more proteins required for blood clotting

A sex-linked recessive disorder carried on the x chromosome in which an individual cannot perceive certain colors.

(of some plants or fungi) feeding on dead or decaying organic matter

decomposition of living matter for consumption.

disease causing

is composed of an anterior and posterior lobe. The stalk of the lobe is connected to the hypothalamus. Antidiuretic Hormone (AH) is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary. Upon nervous stimulation from the hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary releases ADH, which acts on kidney tubule to reabsorb water.

The pituitary gland.

secretes insulin to lower blood sugar and maintain equilibrium.

The pancreas.

produce adrenaline. This hormone is a well-known constrictor of blood vessels.

is secreted by the adrenal cortex to promote sodium reabsorption in the kidney.

cleave strands of DNA segments at certain sites.

is an abundant element found in protoplasm. Together with oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, it composes over 90% of cellular structure.

(self feeder) is an organism that makes its own food.

Because electrons move at speeds near to that of light, we need to think of them as matter (having mass is a property of matter), and energy ( or quanta of energy), like photons. This is also known in physics as wave-particle _________.

___________ are involved mainly with long-term energy storage. They are generally insoluble in polar substances such as water.

"Mixing like oil and water," is an old adage, but it has a fair bit of science behind it. Fatty (oily) substances are a part of organic macromolecules known as ________ , which have areas lacking polar covalent bonds. Water molecules dislike such molecules, causing fats to clump together.

In 1950, Stanley Miller designed an experimental test for Oparin's hypothesis that cellular life was preceded by a period of chemical evolution. According to the theory, pre-cellular life would have begun with the formation of __________ _______.

The atomic _______ is the number of protons plus neutrons in an atom.

• The ancient Greek philosophers developed the concept of the atom, calling it the fundamental particle of matter that could not be broken down. Today we accept that ___________ are substances consisting of one type of atom. However, we also discovered that atoms can be broken down
• in nuclear reactions.

According to the most widely accepted theory, the universe began 10 to 20 billion years ago with the ______ ______ , when a very small "egg" of high density and temperature exploded and formed the expanding universe.

During a condensation reaction of monomers, a hydroxyl (OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (H) is removed from the other. This results in a covalent bond between them, thereby forming a _________.

A lack of Vitamin ___ results in scurvy.

Each organic molecule group has small molecules (__________) that are linked repeatedly to form a larger organic molecule (macromolecule).

The ______ _________ is found in all cells. It separates the inner parts of the cell from the outer environment.

When stars/galaxies are moving away from us, the energy they emit is shifted to the red side of the visible-light spectrum. Those moving towards us are shifted to the violet side. A phenomenon called ______ _______ is a strong evidence in the favor of the Big Bang theory.

In chemical reactions, when two reactants bond together we call it a combination, as in A+B -> C. In ____________, we represent the reaction by C -> A+B. (note: -> represents a right arrow)

The general formula Cx(H2O)x is commonly used to represent many ____________, which means "watered carbon." They are formed by green plants from carbon dioxide and water during the process of photosynthesis.

• _________________ are compounds with elements in definite, fixed ratios, like water. Those atoms are held together usually by one of the three bonds
• ionic, covalent or hydrogen. On the other hand, soil is a mixture with uncertain components.

The mass of particles within an atom are measured in __________.

In its solid form--ice--water is less dense than when it is liquid, another unusual property! The root of these anomalies in the water molecule is its electronic structure, due to a _________ covalently bonded molecule.

One of the most common functional groups is the -OH (hydroxyl) group. Its presence will enable a molecule to be water ___________.

_______________ is a polysaccharide that forms the fibrous part found in plant cell walls.

By combining oxygen with deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, one gets _________ _______ ( D2O).

The orbitals (types s,p,d and f) are arranged in ________, or increasing energy levels from the nucleus outward.

Functional groups are clusters of atoms with characteristic structure and functions. For instance, polar molecules (with +/- charges) are ________ to water molecules and are termed "hydrophilic".

___________ bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. Like child custody between two parents, the electrons tend to spend more time with one atom than the other. The number of electrons shared differs based on the atoms involved.

The element __________ is the basis of known life. Biological systems, while unique to each species, are based on its chemical bonding properties.

Since carbon can make covalent bonds with another carbon atom, carbon chains and rings that serve as the backbones of organic molecules are possible. This property is known as ___________.

A majority of isotopes show nuclear instability, e.g. the tendency of C-14 to convert into C-12. They disintegrate spontaneously with a release of energy, resulting in a process known as ___________ decay.

There are two main types of _____________: sugars and starches.

The rightmost column of the periodic table contains inert elements known as the ________ _____, because they tend to occur in elemental form and are least likely to react.

_____________ are formed when two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together.

The oldest known rocks on Earth are 3.96 billion years old and are from Arctic __________. Thus, life appears to have begun soon after the cooling of the Earth and formation of the atmosphere and oceans.

Diets are attempts to reduce the amount of fats present in specialized cells known as ___________ cells that accumulate in certain areas of the human body.

A(n) ____________ (other-feeder) is an organism that obtains its energy from another organism.

Hydrocarbons are insoluble in _________ and are less dense than water, so they float on its surface. They are usually soluble in one another, however, as well as in certain organic solvents.

After the formation of the earth, there are several theories for how life began, leaving aside the supernatural. The idea of _____________ hypothesized that life originated out in space and came to earth inside a meteorite.

The four "letters" in the DNA code are _________, guanine, adenine, and thymine (list them separated by commas).

Water tends to dissociate into H+ and OH- ions, where the oxygen retains the electrons and only one hydrogen. Thus, becoming a negatively charged ion known as ________ (OH-).

A ____________ bond is a link between the amino group [-NH2] of one amino acid and the carboxyl group [-COOH] of the next amino acid in the protein chain. All living things (and even viruses) use various combinations of the same twenty amino acids.

The atomic number of an element is the number of ___________ contained in its nucleus.

In an ________ bond, two or more atoms bond together to form a molecule by transferring electrons to each other

The formation of the ester bond by _____________ (the removal of water from a molecule) allows the linking of monosaccharides into disaccharides and polysaccharides.

In the early days of science, inorganic substances could be extracted from the rocks, sediments, or waters of the Earth, whereas _____________ substances were found only in the tissues or remains of living organisms.

About 2/3 of the body is made up of ________.

Most atoms found in biological systems tend to gain or lose their outer electrons to achieve a Noble Gas, outer electron shell configuration of 2 or 8 electrons. The number of electrons that are gained or lost is characteristic for each element, and is the cause of atomic __________.

____________ are molecules with identical molecular formulas but a different arrangement of their atoms.

It is vital to life, and yet a strange molecule. ___________ participates in virtually every process that occurs in plants and animals. Although the molecules are simple in structure (H2O), the physical and chemical properties of the compound are extraordinarily complicated.

Due to __________ bonding, water molecules associate strongly. In an ice crystal, the association is a highly ordered, but loose structure. When the ice melts, this orderly arrangement breaks down partially and the molecules pack more closely together. This makes the liquid denser than the solid, which is why ice forms on top of liquid water.

The number of protons--the atomic number--is unique for each element, e.g. Carbon is 6. However, the number of neutrons can differ, resulting in substances known as ___________.

Ionic bonds generally form between elements in Group I (having one electron in their outer shell) and Group __________ (having seven electrons in their outer shell).

• Biochemically, living systems are separated from other chemical systems by three things
• the capacity of ___________ from one generation to another, the presence of enzymes and other necessary complex molecules for living, and a membrane that separates the internal cells from the outer environment.

In covalent bonds, when electrons spend more time with one atom than the other, a type of covalent bond, known as a _______ bond develops. Water (H2O) is an example. Since the electrons spend so much time with the oxygen (oxygen having a greater electronegativity, or electron affinity), that end of the molecule acquires a slightly negative charge.

____________ are substances located on the outside of cells, viruses, and in some cases other chemicals.

_____________ constitute about 80 percent of the dry weight of muscle, 70 percent of that of skin, and 90 percent of that of blood.

Fats and oils function for _________ storage. Animals convert excess sugars (beyond their glycogen storage capacities) into fats. Fats yield 9.3 Kcal/gm, while carbohydrates yield 3.79 Kcal/gm. Fats store six times as much energy as glycogen.

In an atom, ___________ occupy orbitals, or areas where they are most likely to be found.

The pH scale is a logarithmic scale representing the concentration of H+ ions in a solution. It is represented as the negative logarithm of the H+ ion concentration. If the pH of water is _____, then the concentration of H+ ions is 10-7.

In ice, we find another type of bond called ___________ bonds. These result from the weak electrical attraction between the positive end of one H2O molecule and the negative end of another.

What you see below is the Modern Periodic Table of elements. Phosphorous in column VA, row 3 has 5 electrons in its outer shell, and has _____ shells in total.

The _______ _______ of water represents the unique conditions at which it can exist in all three phases in equilibrium.

_________ ______ are substances that comprise the genetic material of living cells. They direct the course of protein synthesis, thereby regulating all cell activities. Furthermore, by their transmission from one generation to the next, they are the vehicle for inherited characteristics.

The products of photosynthesis are assembled to make ___________. Thus, energy from sunlight is converted into the C-C covalent bond energy.

Another nucleic acid known as Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is commonly present in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells. Most cytoplasmic RNA is associated with the ribosomes in a cell, where __________ synthesis occurs.

A ___________ is a compound that is made up only of C (carbon) and H (hydrogen) atoms. The carbon atoms join together to form the framework of the compound; the hydrogen atoms attach to them in many different configurations. Benzene and methane are good examples.

The hydrogen bonds make water molecules sticky, a property known as __________.

All kinds of atoms contain varying quantities of subatomic particles, arranged around a ________, as if in a solar system.

Take the case of Chlorine, which belongs to a group of elements with seven electrons in the outer shell, instead of the desired eight. Thus, it will tend to gain one electron in any reaction, gaining a charge of (-1), which makes it a charged atom known as an _______.

A ______________ is any self-contained cell or organism that lacks internal unit membranes. Bacteria are among the best-known organisms of this kind.

The polarity of the water molecule plays a major part in the formation of ___________ solutions. If an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride, is placed in water, the polar water molecules reduce the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged sodium and negatively charged chloride ions.

__________ are structurally the simplest carbohydrates. They are the structural unit which makes up the other types of carbohydrates.

Chemical bonds store __________. The C-C covalent bond has 83.1 Kcal (kilocalories) per mole, while the C=C double covalent bond has 147 Kcal/mole.

Around the nucleus, electrons are arranged in orbitals, and each orbital can hold only ______ electrons.

The presence of a double C=C covalent bond reduces the number of hydrogens that can bond to the carbon chain, hence termed ___________.

Of the two major types of nucleic acids, ______________ (better known as DNA) is the physical carrier of inheritance for 99% of living organisms. DNA functions in information storage. The English alphabet has 26 letters and over 50,000 words. DNA has 4 letters (C, G, A, and T) and 20 words (the 20 amino acids) that can make an infinite variety of sentences (polypeptides).

A hydrocarbon is hydrophobic except when it has an attached ionized functional group such as carboxyl acid (COOH). If so, the molecule is __________.

If molecular weight is the addition of the atomic masses in a molecule, the weight of glucose (C6H12O6) is _______.

The study of life and living organisms. A problem solving process.

Gradual process by which something changes into a different and usually more complex form.

Basic biological molecules join to form larger biological __________.

The main oxygen transport protein in muscle. Made of a single chain.

The main oxygen transport protein in blood. Made of two alpha chains and two beta chains.

A collection of organisms whose members interact with each other within an ecosystem.

All organisms in an area together with the physical environment which they inhabit.

Organ systems are made of organs which are made of _____________ which are made of cells.

State problem, refine the problem, propose hypothesis, make observations,

Tentative, untested explanation of a scientific issue.

The act or process of causing something to happen,

A statistical comparison of two variables. Does not necessarily mean that one causes the other.

A form of matter tha cannot be decomposed into simpler substance by ordinary chemical methods.

The six elements that make up 99% of the matter in living systems.

The fundamental unit of chemical matter.

An atom's center of mass and center of positive charge.

A positively charged subatomic particle located in the nucleus.

An uncharged subatomic particle located in the nucleus.

A negatively charged subatomic particle located outside the nucleus.

Atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in the nuclei.

A charged species that results from the gain or loss of electrons from a neutral atom or molecule.

An attractive forve between tow or more atoms or ions that holds them together.

A bond whose electrons are shared between atoms.

A chemical bond formed by the attraction between positive and negative ions.

A group of at least two covalently bonded atoms

An expression indicating the number of each type of atom in one molecule of a substance.

A substance composed of two or more elements combined in fixed proportions.

A weak to moderate attractive force between a hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine, and an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom on another molecule. Usually represented by dotted lines.

A process in which a substance or substances are converted into one or more new substances with different propertied and composition.

A chemical reaction produces energy when the difference between the reactants and the products is ____________zero.

The energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount.

A condition or state in which a substance has an uneven distribution of electron density. Enables compounds to dissolve and enables hydrogen bonding.

Occurs when one atom in a bond is more electronegative than the other.

Occurs when there is?

The tendency of an atom in a bond to attract shared bonding electrons.

A liquid which dissolves another substance without any change in its chemical composition.

The attractive force between similar molecules in the same phase.

The attractive force between molecules in one phase and different molecules in another phase.

The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a 1 gram sample of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.

A compound that contains carbon.

Have ths same molecular formul;a but different chemical and physical properties. The atoms are bonded in a different order. Some hydrocarbons are an example of Isomers.

A specific combination of bonded atoms that reacts in a characteristic and predictable way. Examples are Ethers and Alchohols which are represented by a generic molecule. Includes Alchohol, Ether, Aldehyde, Ketone, Carboxylic Acid, and Ester., Amine, Amide, and Phosphoesters.

Used by organisms to produce energy, Most common form is glucose. Also includes Fructose and, less commonly, Ribose, and Deoxyribose.

Biological compounds containing and amino group and a carboxylic acid group.with one of 20 side chains.

A compound containing a nitrogenous base covalently bonded to a pentose sugar and a phosphate group. Classified by the pentose sugar they contain, Ribose or Deoxyribose.

A compound containing a nitrogenous base covalently bonded to a pentose sugar

Very large molecules with molecular masses as high as several million atomic mass units. Polymers of small similar molecules. Includes Polysaccharides, fats, and proteins.

Where two molecules are joined by the elimination of a smaller molecule.

Three roles of Macromolecules.

One of the most abundant carbohydrates providing either energy storage or structural support. Polymers of 10 or more simple sugars, composed of thousands of monomers and up to 100M molecular mass.. Includes Cellulose in plants and Chitin animals with exoskeletons.. Also includes starch. and glycogen.

Macromolecules made from polypeptides. Two type are globular and fibrose.

Group of Macromolecules that Includes Triglycerides and Phospholipids.

The main oxygen carrying protein in blood. Globular.

The simplest unit of biological organization. Term coined by Robert Hooke who invented the first microscope. Basic unit of life.

Discovered that plant tissues are made of cells.

Discovered that animal tissues are made of cells.

Challenged the notion of spontaneous generation by postulating that cells come from pre-existing cells.

Scientist who successfully disproved spontaneous generation.

This type of cell is made up of dendrites and axons.

The barrier between cells made of a bilayer or phospholipid molecules.

Cells containing membrane enclosed compartments. Typically 10-30 micrometers.

Cells that do not contain membrane enclosed compartments. Single celled organsms roughly one micrometer long. Attached Flagellum gives the organism mobility.

One of the three broad categories into which all organisms are grouped. Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria.

A distinct structure or compartment within a eukaryotic cell that performs specific tasks.

Organelle responsible for the synthesis of RNA into Proteins.

Organelle that sorts and modifies proteins from ER and prepares them for transport to specific parts of the cell.

The main sites of energy transformation in eukaryotic animal cells.

Membrane enclosed sacs containing digestive enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

Unique to eukaryotic cells; anchors the organelles in place in the cell, includes three types of fibers Microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments.

In plant cells only, this supports the cell shape and protects the cell.

In plant cells only, this organelle is responsible for photosynthesis

In plants only, a membrane enclosed region that serves as a toxic waste dump. The deterioration of these hastens the death of the cell and the plant.

elements

atom

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium

the ability to do work

energy in motion

stored energy

the increase in randomness and loss of usable energy

in any process, energy is neither created nor destroyed

whenever energy is used, some of the energy is wasted

absorbs heat; endo, within

gives off heat; exo, outside

affect the rate of the reaction but are not changed in the reaction

homogenous(alike) mixture of one or more substances in another substance

dissolved

dissolver (water: universal solvent)

particles are mixed but not dissolved

mixture of fine particles that do not settle out quickly (ex. protoplasm)

can change between gel and sol phases (ex. protoplasm)

cannot change between gel and sol (ex. egg whites)

the diffusion of water(!!) through a semipermiable membrane; equilibrium is never reached.

the putting together of living things

carbon

organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; provide structure and store energy

single sugars; glucose(C6H12O6) is a monosaccharide that is manufactured by plants in photosynthesis

double sugars; maltose, sucrose, lactose; formed when monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, when a suger looses hydrozyl group (OH) and another gives hydrogen, resulting in a water molecule and a disaccharide

when a cell needs a monosaccharide, enzymes cause disaccharides to undergo hydrolysis, which means the breaking down of a disaccharide by adding a water molecule

many sugars; complex carbs

is a polysaccharide; stored by plants; a major energy source for humans; humans can't make it

polysaccharide; animal starch (animals and humans eat starches abd break them down to monosaccharides; the liver converts them to glycogen for storage)

composed of long chains of glucose; is a polysaccharide; found in plant cell walls; nondigestible by most animals; part of our diet called bulk or rubbage(fiber)

polysaccharide; strong and flexible; makes up shells of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects; found in cell walls of fungi

group of organic substances slightly soluble in water; very soluble in other organic liquids; mostly structural but also store energy; humans and animals store their excess energy as lipids

most abundant form of lipids; building blocks for other lipids; have hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends; in water, will align themselves; good source of energy; found in dairy and animal tissues

made of amino acids; polypeptide chain of amino acids; make up the majority of an organism's cells; used as enzymes or as building blocks

found in nucleus of cell; contain info necessary for the manufacture of an organism's proteins; nucleic acid form genes; watson and crick discovered

made of nucleotides; sugar, phosphate, base; adenine, thyOOmine; guani`ne, cytosine

process of making two DNA molecules from one strand

another nucleic acid; single strand; sometime replaces thymine

proteins only one that is enzymatic

the living content in a cell

is the smallest and most basic unit of most living things (organisms).

observed tiny organisms (he called them "animalcules") with the use of microscopes.

was the first to use the term "cells," when he observed cell walls of dead cork under a light microscope.

have no nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles. A singled-celled organism in which the DNA is not contained in a nucleus; a bacterium or an archaean.

cell components that perform particular functions

Type of cell that starts life with a nucleus.These cells contain membrane-bound intracellular organelles, including a nucleus. For example, plant, fungi, and animal cells, as well as protozoa.

all organisms consist of one or more cells; the cell is the smallest unit of organization with the properties of life; and each new cell arises from another cell.

noncellular infectious particle that consists of DNA or RNA, a protein coat and, in some types, an outer lipid envelope; it can be replicated only after its genetic material enters a host cell and subverts the host's metabolic machinery.

many cell organelles are very small and require the magnification and resolution power of this.

the plasma membranes which all cells are enclosed within.

In eukaryotic cells only, organelle with an outer envelope of two pore-ridden lipid bilayers; separates chromosomes from the cytoplasm.

the region between the nucleus and the cell membrane.

Since all of the organelles outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane exist within the cytoplasm, they are all called these.

encloses the cell and separates it from the environment. It may also be called a plasma membrane. This membrane is composed of a double layer of phospholipids with globular proteins embedded within the layers. The combination of the lipid bilayer and the proteins embedded within it allow the cell to determine what molecules and ions can enter and leave the cell, and regulate the rate at which they enter and leave.

form when the plasma membrane of a cell surrounds a molecule outside the membrane, then releases a membrane bound sack containing the desired molecule or substance into the cytoplasm. This process allows the cell to absorb larger molecules than would be able to pass through the cell membrane, or that need to remain package within the cell.

are projections of the cell extending from the cell membrane. They are found in certain types of cells, for example, those involved in absorption (such as the cells lining the intestine). These filaments increases the surface area of the cell membrane, increasing the area available to absorb nutrients. They also contain enzymes involved in digesting certain types of nutrients.

provides structural support to a cell.

long, hollow, cylindrical protein filaments, which give structure to the cell. These filaments are scattered around the edges of a cell and form a sort of loose skeleton or framework for the cytoplasm.

are double-stranded chains of proteins, which serve to give structure to the cell.Together with the larger microtubules, these form the cytoskeleton, providing stability and structure.

are structural components of many cells, and are particularly common in animal cells.They are tubes constructed of a geometrical arrangement of microtubules in a pinwheel shape. Their function includes the formation of new microtubules, but is primarily the formation of structural skeleton around which cells split during mitosis and meiosis.

are the site of protein synthesis within cells.

are attached to the ER. Proteins made at the site of attached ribosomes are destined for use within the membrane-bound organelles.

float unattached within the cytoplasm. The proteins synthesized by these are made for use in the cytoplasm.

a large organization of folded membranes, is responsible for the delivery of lipids and proteins to certain areas within the cytoplasm. A sort of cellular highway. It is responsible for processing lipids, fats, and steroids, which are then packaged and dispersed by the Golgi apparatus.

has attached ribosomes. In addition to packaging and transport of materials within the cell, this is instrumental to protein synthesis.

a network of membranous channels. It does not have attached ribosomes.

is the instrumental in storing, packaging and shipping of proteins.

packets of material packaged by either the Golgi apparatus or the endoplasmic reticulum.

fusion of a cytoplasmic vesicle with the plasma membrane; as it becomes part of the membrane, its contents are released to extracellular fluid.

are membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes. They digest unused material within the cell, damaged organelles, or materials absorbed by the cell for use.

are centers of cellular respiration. Double-membraned organelle of ATP formation; site of second and third stages of aerobic respiration in eukaryotes.

Mitochondria are thought to be an evolved form of primitive bacteria (prokaryotic cells) that lived in a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotic cells more than 2 billions years ago. This concept is a plausible explanation of how mitochondria, which have many of the necessary components for life on their own, became an intergral part of eukaryotic cells.

is an organelle surrounded by two lipid bilayer membranes. The nucleus contains chromosomes, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleoli.

is a rounded area within the nucleus of the cell where ribosomal RNA is synthesized. This rRNA isincorporated into ribosomes after exiting the nucleus.

is the boundary between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane is actually a double membrane, which allows for the entrance and exit of certain molecules through the nuclear pores.

forming a passageway between the inside of the nucleus and the cytoplasm outside the nucleus. They allow the cell to selectively move molecules in and out of the nucleus. They scattered about the surface of the nuclear membrane.

surround plant cells. (Bacteria also have this.) They are made of cellulose and lignin, making them strong and rigid. It encloses the cell membrane providing strength and protection for the cell. It also allows plant cells to store water under relatively high concentration.

smallest and most basic unit of most living things

living things

noncellular

not without invading the cell of another organism

observed tiny organisms with microscopes

1st to use the term "cells" when he observed cell walls of dead cork under a light m.scope

prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cell components that perform particular functions

type of cell with nucleus

all living things are made up of one or more cells, cells are basic unit of life, all cells come from preexisting cells

one cell

many cells

organelles that make E available to the cells

virus, prokaryotic, eukaryotic

by invading living cell then using cell's mechanism to reproduce, destroying the cell in the process

aka: plasma membrane- cells are enclosed in this. contains lipid bilayer

near center of eukaryotic cells, contains chromosomes

between nucleus and cell membrane

all organelles outside the nucleus but w/in the cell membrane

allow the cell to absorb larger molecules than would be able to pass through the cell membrane or needed to remain packaged w/in the cell

projections of the cell extending from the cell membrane. increase the surface area of the cell membrane thus increasing area avail to absorb nutrients

provides structural support to a cell

long, hollow, cylindrical protein filaments which give structure to cell

organelles which allow some cells to move on their own

dbl stranded chains of proteins which serve to give structure to the cell

form cytoskeleton providing stability and structure

tubes that form new microtubules

structurally similar to centrioles, function to anchor and aid in the movement of flagella

site of protein synthesis composed of certain protein molecules and RNA (rRNA)

float unattached w/in the cytoplasm

attached to the ER destined for use in the membrane bound organelles

lg organization of folded membranes responsible for the delivery of lipids and proteins to certain areas within the cytoplasm

attached to ribosomes; packs and transports materials with in the cell but also important in protein synthesis

network of membranous channels- does not attach to ribosomes

aka golgi bodies or golgi complex: important in storing, packing, and shipping proteins

packets of material packed by ER or Golgi app.

membrane bound organelles containing digestive enzymes

center of cellular respiration

process of breaking up covalent bonds with sugar molecules by intake of Oxy and release of ATP

intake oxy , release ATP

in cells that require more E

where cellular respiration occurs; folds of internal membranes

mitochondria became eukaryotic by evolution from prokaryotic 2bill yrs ago

membrane bound fluid filled sacs

expell waste and excess water form single celled organisms

organelle surrounded by 2 lipid bilayer membranes

rounded area within the nucleus of cell where Ribosomal RNA is synthesized

chromosomes, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleoli

between nucleus and cytoplasm; allows for entrance and exit of certain molecules via nuclear pores

pts @ which the dbl nuclear membrane fuse togethor creating a passageway between the inside of nucleus and cytoplasm outside

cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole

made of cellulose and lignin which makes it strong and rigid. encloses cell membrane

sometimes channels connect to cytoplasm of adjacent cells

found in plant cells- site of photosynthesis

pigment molecules that give chloroplasts their green color

body of cholorplast containing embedded disk-like plates

embedded disk-like plates in stroma- site of photosynthetic reactions

makes volume of plant cells, stores water and soluble nutrients for plant's use

central vacuole is bound by this type of membrane

passive transport, facilitated diffusion, active transport, bulk transport

exo- and endocytosis

substances move freely across membrane without cell expending E

simple diffusion, osomosis

molecules and ions flow through cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentraion

diffusion only in water molecules, does not require the addition of E

equalized concentration by osmosis

does not req. added E; transfer occurs with help of specialized proteins;

req. E output from cell.-req. membrane bound proteins; opposite of norm diffusion; E from ATP added causes a protein molecule embedded in the membrane to change shape and move molecules across membrane

lg. molecules are taken into pocket of membrane, pocket pinches off, delivering molecules in sack to cytoplasm

expels substance from cell; opposite of endocytosis

protein molecules acting as catalysts for organic reactions

@ the ribosomes, true for enzymes too.

bc of their shape

uniquely shaped area for the substrate

fits the active site

substrate + active site=

release of unchanged enzyme

enzyme is coupled with breakdown of ATP or sim. molecules

coupled with the production of ATP or other molecule with high E chemical bonds

non-protein substance sometimes req. in enzymatic reactions

metal ions- ex. iron, copper, or zinc

aka coenzymes- some not made by cells but must be obtained in the diet-usually vitamins

organic

substance that attaches to an enzyme before substrate ensuring cellular reaction will not take place

similar cofactors- facilitate enzyme reaction but are bound to enzyme, rather than being separate atoms or molecules

things like high heat and acidity can change the shape of the active site and make the enzyme ineffective

enzyme control- occurs when the product of the reaction is also an inhibitor to the reaction or when a particular molecule is a regulator by changing the structure of the active site making the enzyme more or less effective

photosynthetic organisms that harvest solar E and transform it to chemical stored via carbs, fats, and proteins

general term including all types of E transformation including- photosynthesis, respiration, growth, movement etc

is lost in the form of heat

process where cells build molecules and store E in the form of chemical bonds

process of breaking down molecules and releasing stored E

adenosine triphosphate: E from the sun is transformed by photosynthetic organisms into chemical E in the form of this; contains one nitrogenous base, simple sugar, and 3 phosphate groups

ATP

the cell would be overwhelmed

adenine diphosphate

adenine monophosphate

(self feeder) is an organism that makes its own food.

Because electrons move at speeds near to that of light, we need to think of them as matter (having mass is a property of matter), and energy ( or quanta of energy), like photons. This is also known in physics as wave-particle _________.

___________ are involved mainly with long-term energy storage. They are generally insoluble in polar substances such as water.

"Mixing like oil and water," is an old adage, but it has a fair bit of science behind it. Fatty (oily) substances are a part of organic macromolecules known as ________ , which have areas lacking polar covalent bonds. Water molecules dislike such molecules, causing fats to clump together.

In 1950, Stanley Miller designed an experimental test for Oparin's hypothesis that cellular life was preceded by a period of chemical evolution. According to the theory, pre-cellular life would have begun with the formation of __________ _______.

The atomic _______ is the number of protons plus neutrons in an atom.

• The ancient Greek philosophers developed the concept of the atom, calling it the fundamental particle of matter that could not be broken down. Today we accept that ___________ are substances consisting of one type of atom. However, we also discovered that atoms can be broken down
• in nuclear reactions.

According to the most widely accepted theory, the universe began 10 to 20 billion years ago with the ______ ______ , when a very small "egg" of high density and temperature exploded and formed the expanding universe.

During a condensation reaction of monomers, a hydroxyl (OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (H) is removed from the other. This results in a covalent bond between them, thereby forming a _________.

A lack of Vitamin ___ results in scurvy.

Each organic molecule group has small molecules (__________) that are linked repeatedly to form a larger organic molecule (macromolecule).

The ______ _________ is found in all cells. It separates the inner parts of the cell from the outer environment.

When stars/galaxies are moving away from us, the energy they emit is shifted to the red side of the visible-light spectrum. Those moving towards us are shifted to the violet side. A phenomenon called ______ _______ is a strong evidence in the favor of the Big Bang theory.

In chemical reactions, when two reactants bond together we call it a combination, as in A+B -> C. In ____________, we represent the reaction by C -> A+B. (note: -> represents a right arrow)

The general formula Cx(H2O)x is commonly used to represent many ____________, which means "watered carbon." They are formed by green plants from carbon dioxide and water during the process of photosynthesis.

• _________________ are compounds with elements in definite, fixed ratios, like water. Those atoms are held together usually by one of the three bonds
• ionic, covalent or hydrogen. On the other hand, soil is a mixture with uncertain components.

The mass of particles within an atom are measured in __________.

In its solid form--ice--water is less dense than when it is liquid, another unusual property! The root of these anomalies in the water molecule is its electronic structure, due to a _________ covalently bonded molecule.

One of the most common functional groups is the -OH (hydroxyl) group. Its presence will enable a molecule to be water ___________.

_______________ is a polysaccharide that forms the fibrous part found in plant cell walls.

By combining oxygen with deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, one gets _________ _______ ( D2O).

The orbitals (types s,p,d and f) are arranged in ________, or increasing energy levels from the nucleus outward.

Functional groups are clusters of atoms with characteristic structure and functions. For instance, polar molecules (with +/- charges) are ________ to water molecules and are termed "hydrophilic".

___________ bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. Like child custody between two parents, the electrons tend to spend more time with one atom than the other. The number of electrons shared differs based on the atoms involved.

The element __________ is the basis of known life. Biological systems, while unique to each species, are based on its chemical bonding properties.

Since carbon can make covalent bonds with another carbon atom, carbon chains and rings that serve as the backbones of organic molecules are possible. This property is known as ___________.

A majority of isotopes show nuclear instability, e.g. the tendency of C-14 to convert into C-12. They disintegrate spontaneously with a release of energy, resulting in a process known as ___________ decay.

There are two main types of _____________: sugars and starches.

The rightmost column of the periodic table contains inert elements known as the ________ _____, because they tend to occur in elemental form and are least likely to react.

_____________ are formed when two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together.

The oldest known rocks on Earth are 3.96 billion years old and are from Arctic __________. Thus, life appears to have begun soon after the cooling of the Earth and formation of the atmosphere and oceans.

Diets are attempts to reduce the amount of fats present in specialized cells known as ___________ cells that accumulate in certain areas of the human body.

A(n) ____________ (other-feeder) is an organism that obtains its energy from another organism.

Hydrocarbons are insoluble in _________ and are less dense than water, so they float on its surface. They are usually soluble in one another, however, as well as in certain organic solvents.

After the formation of the earth, there are several theories for how life began, leaving aside the supernatural. The idea of _____________ hypothesized that life originated out in space and came to earth inside a meteorite.

The four "letters" in the DNA code are _________, guanine, adenine, and thymine (list them separated by commas).

Water tends to dissociate into H+ and OH- ions, where the oxygen retains the electrons and only one hydrogen. Thus, becoming a negatively charged ion known as ________ (OH-).

A ____________ bond is a link between the amino group [-NH2] of one amino acid and the carboxyl group [-COOH] of the next amino acid in the protein chain. All living things (and even viruses) use various combinations of the same twenty amino acids.

The atomic number of an element is the number of ___________ contained in its nucleus.

In an ________ bond, two or more atoms bond together to form a molecule by transferring electrons to each other

The formation of the ester bond by _____________ (the removal of water from a molecule) allows the linking of monosaccharides into disaccharides and polysaccharides.

In the early days of science, inorganic substances could be extracted from the rocks, sediments, or waters of the Earth, whereas _____________ substances were found only in the tissues or remains of living organisms.

About 2/3 of the body is made up of ________.

Most atoms found in biological systems tend to gain or lose their outer electrons to achieve a Noble Gas, outer electron shell configuration of 2 or 8 electrons. The number of electrons that are gained or lost is characteristic for each element, and is the cause of atomic __________.

____________ are molecules with identical molecular formulas but a different arrangement of their atoms.

It is vital to life, and yet a strange molecule. ___________ participates in virtually every process that occurs in plants and animals. Although the molecules are simple in structure (H2O), the physical and chemical properties of the compound are extraordinarily complicated.

Due to __________ bonding, water molecules associate strongly. In an ice crystal, the association is a highly ordered, but loose structure. When the ice melts, this orderly arrangement breaks down partially and the molecules pack more closely together. This makes the liquid denser than the solid, which is why ice forms on top of liquid water.

The number of protons--the atomic number--is unique for each element, e.g. Carbon is 6. However, the number of neutrons can differ, resulting in substances known as ___________.

Ionic bonds generally form between elements in Group I (having one electron in their outer shell) and Group __________ (having seven electrons in their outer shell).

• Biochemically, living systems are separated from other chemical systems by three things
• the capacity of ___________ from one generation to another, the presence of enzymes and other necessary complex molecules for living, and a membrane that separates the internal cells from the outer environment.

In covalent bonds, when electrons spend more time with one atom than the other, a type of covalent bond, known as a _______ bond develops. Water (H2O) is an example. Since the electrons spend so much time with the oxygen (oxygen having a greater electronegativity, or electron affinity), that end of the molecule acquires a slightly negative charge.

____________ are substances located on the outside of cells, viruses, and in some cases other chemicals.

_____________ constitute about 80 percent of the dry weight of muscle, 70 percent of that of skin, and 90 percent of that of blood.

Fats and oils function for _________ storage. Animals convert excess sugars (beyond their glycogen storage capacities) into fats. Fats yield 9.3 Kcal/gm, while carbohydrates yield 3.79 Kcal/gm. Fats store six times as much energy as glycogen.

In an atom, ___________ occupy orbitals, or areas where they are most likely to be found.

The pH scale is a logarithmic scale representing the concentration of H+ ions in a solution. It is represented as the negative logarithm of the H+ ion concentration. If the pH of water is _____, then the concentration of H+ ions is 10-7.

In ice, we find another type of bond called ___________ bonds. These result from the weak electrical attraction between the positive end of one H2O molecule and the negative end of another.

What you see below is the Modern Periodic Table of elements. Phosphorous in column VA, row 3 has 5 electrons in its outer shell, and has _____ shells in total.

The _______ _______ of water represents the unique conditions at which it can exist in all three phases in equilibrium.

_________ ______ are substances that comprise the genetic material of living cells. They direct the course of protein synthesis, thereby regulating all cell activities. Furthermore, by their transmission from one generation to the next, they are the vehicle for inherited characteristics.

The products of photosynthesis are assembled to make ___________. Thus, energy from sunlight is converted into the C-C covalent bond energy.

Another nucleic acid known as Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is commonly present in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells. Most cytoplasmic RNA is associated with the ribosomes in a cell, where __________ synthesis occurs.

A ___________ is a compound that is made up only of C (carbon) and H (hydrogen) atoms. The carbon atoms join together to form the framework of the compound; the hydrogen atoms attach to them in many different configurations. Benzene and methane are good examples.

The hydrogen bonds make water molecules sticky, a property known as __________.

All kinds of atoms contain varying quantities of subatomic particles, arranged around a ________, as if in a solar system.

Take the case of Chlorine, which belongs to a group of elements with seven electrons in the outer shell, instead of the desired eight. Thus, it will tend to gain one electron in any reaction, gaining a charge of (-1), which makes it a charged atom known as an _______.

A ______________ is any self-contained cell or organism that lacks internal unit membranes. Bacteria are among the best-known organisms of this kind.

The polarity of the water molecule plays a major part in the formation of ___________ solutions. If an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride, is placed in water, the polar water molecules reduce the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged sodium and negatively charged chloride ions.

__________ are structurally the simplest carbohydrates. They are the structural unit which makes up the other types of carbohydrates.

Chemical bonds store __________. The C-C covalent bond has 83.1 Kcal (kilocalories) per mole, while the C=C double covalent bond has 147 Kcal/mole.

Around the nucleus, electrons are arranged in orbitals, and each orbital can hold only ______ electrons.

The presence of a double C=C covalent bond reduces the number of hydrogens that can bond to the carbon chain, hence termed ___________.

Of the two major types of nucleic acids, ______________ (better known as DNA) is the physical carrier of inheritance for 99% of living organisms. DNA functions in information storage. The English alphabet has 26 letters and over 50,000 words. DNA has 4 letters (C, G, A, and T) and 20 words (the 20 amino acids) that can make an infinite variety of sentences (polypeptides).

A hydrocarbon is hydrophobic except when it has an attached ionized functional group such as carboxyl acid (COOH). If so, the molecule is __________.

If molecular weight is the addition of the atomic masses in a molecule, the weight of glucose (C6H12O6) is _______.

The filament, anther, pollen grains, and tube nuclei are all parts of the male reproductive system in plants. The male structure is the stamen, consisting of the anther atop a long, hollow filament. The anther has four lobes and contains the cells that become pollen. The tube nuclei develop from pollen grains. The stigma is only found on female plants.

Scientists conclude that in the evolution of life (including plants) the first cells were prokaryotic, and that eukaryotic cells developed as cells with varying functions were incorporated into more complex cells (the Endosymbiont Theory). In addition the early Earth atmosphere was void of oxygen, so early cells were anaerobic, with aerobic cells evolving later. Cyanobacteria are autotrophic (photosynthetic) prokaryotes that are considered ancestors of multicellular plants. Both answers (A) and (B) wrongly place eukaryotes before prokaryotes. Answer (C) wrongly places aerobic cells before anaerobic cells. Answer (D) wrongly places anaerobic cells between aerobic cells and plants.

A carbohydrate molecule contains only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio CH2O. Nitrogen, N, and sulfur, S, are elements that are not found in carbohydrates. Amine, NH2, and phosphate, PO4, groups are found in other organic molecules, but not in carbohydrates.

A fixed action pattern (FAP) is the most complex of stereotyped behaviors. It is a pre-programmed and complex response to a particular environmental signal known as a releaser or a sign stimulus. FAPs include courtship behaviors, circadian rhythms, and feeding of young. Organisms automatically perform FAPs without any prior experience (they are not learned).

The process of photosynthesis is the crucial reaction that converts the light energy of the Sun into chemical energy that is usable by living things. While catabolism, metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, and protein synthesis are necessary processes for most organisms, only photosynthetic organisms convert energy directly from light.

The sum total of genetic information of a species is its genome. Genes are portions of chromosomes that determine the inheritance of an organism's characteristics. Polyploidy refers to the existence of a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes in a cell.

Telophase ends with the splitting of the cytoplasm into two distinct cells, a process known as cytokinesis.

During prophase, the first stage of mitosis, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes; the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, and spindle fibers begin to extend from the centromeres of each chromosome toward the center of the cell. In the second part of prophase the nuclear membrane dissolves and the spindle fibers attach to the centromeres at the kinetochore.

Anaphase is characterized by the separation of the paired chromosomes at the kinetochore. Each chromosome travels along the spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell.

Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin molecules (that contain iron) in red blood cells. Lymphocytes, erythrocytes, eosinophils, and neutrophils are all non oxygen-carrying types of blood cells.

The epiglottis is the flap of tissue that covers the glottis, preventing food particles from entering the bronchial tubes. Before reaching the glottis (the opening that allows gases to pass into the bronchi), air passes through the pharynx and into the trachea. The larynx is the upper portion of the trachea; the glottis is the lower portion of the trachea.

Three polar bodies are formed when primary oocytes undergo meiosis I and II. The fourth cell that is formed is an egg cell. Polar bodies are not fertile.

In addition to being the primary structure and support for the human frame, the 206 bones of the skeleton protect the soft internal organs of the human body, produce red blood cells from its marrow, and allow for movement by providing a base for muscles and ligaments. While the bones do store calcium and phosphates, they do not produce them.

The illustration is called a Punnett square and is used to illustrate genetic crosses. The genotype is the representation of the alleles present in a particular organism (for example Tt, where upper case T stands for the dominant allele for "tall" and lower case t stands for the recessive allele for short), while the phenotype is the description of the physical attribute of a particular genotype (for example the phenotype for Tt would be "tall" since tall is dominant). While Mendel was instrumental in the study of genetics, Reginald Punnett, not Mendel, developed the Punnett square; thus, it is not called a "Mendelian Diagram." Phenogram is not a term that is used in genetics.

• Animal cells have organized nuclei and membrane-bound organelles
• Animal cells do not have cell walls or plastids
• Animals only reproduce asexually
• Animals develop from embryonic stages
• Animals are heterotrophic (they do not produce their own food)
• Animal species are capable of sexual reproduction, though some, such as the hydra and other invertebrates, asexually reproduce. All animal cells are eukaryotic (have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles). Only plants and blue-green bacteria have cell walls and/or plastids. Animals do develop from embryos and are heterotrophic, which means that they gain their energy directly or indirectly by ingesting autotrophs.

The similarity of body shapes between sharks and dolphins most likely results from the convergent evolution of traits that are favorable to survival in the ocean. Sharks (cartilaginous fish) and dolphins (mammals) do not share a common ancestry, nor did one evolve into the other. Sharks and dolphins have different niches in the ocean community, so they are not in competition. Allopatric speciation occurs between geographically isolated populations of the same species that eventually develop into separate species.

The center of the root contains the vascular cylinder (e), including xylem and phloem tissue.

The outermost layer of primary tissue is the epidermis (b). The epidermis is one cell layer thick. It protects the internal root tissue and absorbs nutrients and water.

The order of classification from least specific to most specific is kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, so of those listed, genus is the most specific, with members most closely related to each other.

• Oparin's hypothesis included the idea that most water on Earth was in the form of water vapor and steam, not ice. Answer choices (B)
• (E) are all consistent with Oparin's hypothesis that proposed the Earth was approximately 4.6 billion years old and had a reducing atmosphere with very little oxygen present. There was an abundance of ammonia, hydrogen, methane, water vapor, and steam (H2O). There was a great deal of heat energy available as the Earth was cooling. Recurring violent lightning storms also provided energy. The cooling of the Earth also caused much of the water vapor surrounding the Earth to condense, forming hot seas. The concentration of organic molecules became very high; they began forming into larger, charged, complex molecules called coacervates.

Genetic drift occurs as a gene pool experiences a change in frequency of particular genes due to chance fluctuations. Over time the genetic pool within this finite population changes.

A geographic separation within a population may develop members with a genetic difference that prevents successful reproduction with the original species. The genetically different members reproduce with each other, producing a population that is separate from the original species. This process is called sympatric speciation.

Kin selection results in the preservation of traits that are

Parasitism is symbiosis in which one organism benefits, but the other is harmed. Mutualism is symbiosis that benefits both organisms. Amensalism is symbiosis where one organism is neither helped nor harmed but the growth of the other is inhibited. Predation is not symbiosis; rather it is the killing of an organism by another. Habituation is also not symbiosis; it is a behavioral response where there is less and less response by an individual to a stimulus over time.

Large molecules (such as proteins) are not able to pass through the cell membrane, but are instead engulfed by the cell membrane. Endocytosis is the process whereby large molecules (i.e., some sugars, or proteins) are taken up by a sack of membrane and delivered to the interior of the cell where it can be used. (This process, for instance, is used by white blood cells to engulf bacteria.) Exocytosis uses the same processes but exports substances to the exterior of the cell. Diffusion, active transport, and facilitated diffusion all refer to processes of passing substances through the cell membrane by various means.

It is the shape of the active site of the enzyme that allows the enzyme to work on the substrate to form product(s). The active site of the amylase molecule matches the shape of starch molecules. The speed of the reaction and the amount of substrate do not enhance amylase's enzymatic functions. Specific enzymes are needed for specific reactions.

Photosynthetic organisms are found in the Kingdom Plantae and the Kingdom Protista, and are not found in the Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Animalia, or Kingdom Monera. Mycota is another term for Fungi.

Argon is a noble gas; it does not occur naturally in organic tissue. All organic molecules contain carbon, but also commonly contain oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur (as well as phosphorous, not listed in answers).

Gymnosperms produce seeds without flowers.

Gymnosperms produce seeds without flowers, and include conifers (cone-bearers) and cycads.

Chemical bonds are where energy is stored within cells.

The diploid (2n) generation in plants is known as the sporophyte. The prothallus is the haploid (n) structure that develops into the mature gametophyte in ferns. The gametophyte is always haploid as well. What we consider the adult generation in a plant's life cycle may be haploid (ex. mosses) or diploid (ex. ferns). Spores are male haploid gametes.

Since the skeleton of the fish was easily identifiable, the fish must belong to the class of bony fish—Osteichthyes. Cephalochordates have a notochord, but no vertebrae. Porifera is the phylum including sponges; Cnidaria is the phylum including jellyfish and hydra; Platyhelminthes is the phylum containing flat worms.