Integrative Physiology

• 1. Prefrontal area
• 2. Motor area

• -elaborates the thinking process
• -planning of complex movements

• -controls thin muscles of the body (feet, mouth, fingers, eye)
• -coordinates movements
• -controls speech (articulation of words)

Somesthetic area

-receives sensations, temperature, and pain sensations from the body

Visual area

-detects visual signals

• 1. Auditory area
• 2. Wernicke's area
• 3. Short-term memory area

-detects auditory signals

-interprets the signification of sentences as they are heard and written

-stores short-term memory (a few sec)

central sulcus

feeling and emotion

related to thinking

cutting a hole in the skull to relieve evil spirits

study of bumps on the head

• -spike went through eye and frontal lobe
• -first frontal lobotomy

• 1. Detect information using sensory receptors
• 2. Recognize significance
• 3. Decide on response
• 4. Execute an action

Sensory (afferent) neurons carry information from PNS to CNS (brain and spinal cord)

Neurons relay the information from CNS to effector organs (motor pathway) to elicit a response

• 1. Autonomic Nervous System- controls internal organs
• a. sympathetic system (fright/flight)
• b. parasympathetic system (rest and digest)
• 2. Somatic Motor Division
• a. controls skeletal muscle

Nerves, which are made of neurons

43

• -12 cranial nerves (both sensory & motor)
• -31 spinal nerves (mixed as well)

Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel A Good Vag So Hot.............1-12

Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Auditory, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Spinal accessory, Hypoglossal

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Bad Business to Marry Money.......

• 1.Sensory
• 2.Sensory
• 3.Motor
• 4.Motor
• 5.Both
• 6.Motor
• 7.Both
• 8.Sensory
• 9.Both
• 10.Both
• 11.Motor
• 12.Motor

control eye movement

control tongue movement

sense smell

vision

hearing and balance

• -masticatory movements
• -sensitivity of face

• -muscles of facial expression
• -taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue

movement of neck muscles and viscera, swallowing

sensitivity and movement of heart, lungs, larynx, GI tract

• -movement of pharynx, salivary secretion
• -taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue

• 1. Thoracic
• 2. Lumbar
• 3. Cervical
• 4. Sacral (and coccyx)

area of the skin innervated by the sensory axons of the nerve (root)

AFFERENT

collection of muscle fibers innervated by the motor axons of each nerve (root)

EFFERENT

True

AFFERENT

EFFERENT

White matter made of subcortical nuclei

gray matter consisting of sensory and motor nuclei

• 1. Dorsal horn
• 2. Ventral horn
• 3. Lateral horn

• -visceral sensory nuclei
• -somatic sensory nuclei

somatic motor nuclei

autonomic efferent nuclei

True. Ex: when heart attack occurs, left arm hurts

Myelination of axons

sensory info from spinal cord going up to the brain

info from the brain going down to the spinal cord (carrying command to motor neurons)

• 1. Cranium (skull)
• 2. Vertebral column (spine)

layers of membrane that lie b/w the brain tissue and skull

• 1. Dura mater
• 2. Arachnoid mater
• 3. Pia Mater

• outside, hard layer
• -closest to skull

middle, spidery layer

• soft, innermost layer
• -covers and adherent to brain

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

provide nourishment (like glucose) and protection

• 4
• -lateral 1 and 2
• -intraventricular foramen
• -3
• -cerebral aqueduct
• -4
• -central canal

• -secretes CSF
• -made of modified ependymal cells, pia mater and capillaries

Hydrocephalus

• prevents toxic substances from entering the brain
• -only lipid solubles can get in (anesthetics, alcohol, gases)
• -proteins cannot get out
• -medulla oblongata does NOT have bbb

• 1. diencephalon
• 2. cerebrum

• 1. midbrain
• 2. pons
• 3. medulla oblongata
• 4. RAS

• reticular activating system
• -attention
• -control of wakefulness
• -filtering of repetitive stimuli
• *a network starting in brainstem and going through midbrain

• 1. conduction pathway w/w higher and lower brain centers
• 2. Two parts-
• -tectum
• -tegmentum

• 1. Inferior colliculi- auditory
• 2. Superior colliculi- adjust movements of the head and eyes toward a stimulus (visual, somatic and auditory coordination)
• **AUDITORY & VISUAL REFLEX RESPONSE

• 1. reticular formation, substantia nigra and red nuclei "rubro" important for movement
• 2. controls motor functions, regulates awareness and attention, and regulates some autonomic functions
• **MOVEMENT

• 1. relays info from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
• 2. cooperates w/ the medulla oblongata to control resp. rate and depth

• 1. visceral (gray matter) controlling heart rate, respiration, coughing, vomiting, blood vessel diameter
• 2. white matter containing ascending somatosensory tracts and descending corticospinal tracts
• **Many tracts cross midline at the medulla or spinal cord (DECUSSATE, CONTRALATERAL CONTROL)

• 1. processes info from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, visual and equilibrium pathways
• -important for balance, posture and coordinated movement

• 1. Thalamus
• 2. Hypothalamus
• 3. Limbic System

• a relay station w/ tons of nuclei
• -memory processing

• the center for homeostasis
• -regulation of thirst, reproduction, hunger, temperature, sympathetic NS

• -connects to frontal lobe, temporal lobe, thalamus and hypothalamus
• -mediates emotional responses
• -"basic instincts"

Sensory-Afferent-Input-Dorsal

Motor-Output-Ventral-Efferent

• 1. diencephalon
• 2. cerebrum

• 1. Thalamus
• 2. Hypothalamus
• 3. Limbic System

a relay station; memory processing

• 1.Amygdala
• 2.Cingulate Gyrus
• 3.Hippocampus
• 4.Insular cortex

anger, fear and aggression

involved in positive and negative emotional response

learning and memory

relates visceral/autonomic sensations of emotion to the rest of the brain

• it is the site of higher brain function
• it is the largest part of the brain

corpus callosum

• Gray; cerebral cortex
• -6 layers total

has almost no cell bodies so they don't get damaged since they are close to outside

mainly inhibitory interneurons

mainly excitatory interneurons

mostly sensory signals (main input layer)

connect adjacent cortical regions and integrate cortical function

5 and 6

projection neurons (major output cells of the cortex)

they are involved in local processing in the cerebral cortex

integrating center for sensory information

receive and perceive sensory input

• where more complex processing occurs
• -receive information from multiple sensory and motor areas

the motor association area which is adjacent to the primary motor cortex

coordinates info from other association areas and controls some behaviors

taste

smell

• -primary somatic sensory cortex
• -sensory association area
• (in parietal lobe)

deep within the lateral sulcus, between the temporal and parietal lobes

parietal lobe right behind the central sulcus

• map showing areas of the somatosensory cortex that are devoted to certain areas of the outside body.
• -size of the region does not match what's on outside of body (lips, hands)

• -pain
• -proprioception
• -touch
• -pressure
• -temperature

MORE, because there are more neural circuits and innervations

the limited ability of nervous system to alter anatomy and function in response to changes in activity pattern

LEFT

comprehends speech or sentences

plans and sequences response outloud

executes speech

neural network that connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area

• recognition of a written word
• -people w/ dyslexia have damage here

reading a word

perceives sound waves

Broca's area

Wernicke's area

• 1.primary auditory complex
• 2.Wernicke's area
• 3.Arcuate fasciculus
• 4.Broca's area
• 5.Motor cortex

• 1.Primary visual cortex (occipital lobe)
• 2.angular gyrus- recognize
• 3.Wernicke's area
• 4.Arcuate fasciculus
• 5.Broca's area-plan to speak
• 6.motor cortex- speak

damage or lesion to an area of brain

widespread damage to all areas of left hemisphere

• damage to secondary auditory complex
• -RESULT: fast, fluent, nonsensical jargon, can make up new words (neologism)

• -damage to premotor area
• -difficulty in speech production, but can comprehend good
• -RESULT: nongrammatical, awkward speech
• -RESULT: can use nouns, verbs, but not in-between fillers and conjunctions

• damage to arcuate fasciculus
• -can understand what you hear and produce your own language w/ some difficulty, but CAN'T repeat what someone says/what they hear.

• left
• -Broca's: controls physical act of signing
• -Wernicke's: comprehension of signing

Right

Right side of brain controls left body, vice versa.

always

• in the dorsal horn of spinal cord before reaching the brain
• -triggered by receptor activation
• -pain, temperature or coarse touch

• in the spinal cord or medulla
• -interneurons
• -fine touch, vibrations, and proprioception

• in the thalamus
• -originate and come together in thalamus and ascend up into sensory cortex

in medulla and spinal cord depending on whether it is ascending or descending message

in the optic chiasm

at the nasal retina

left------>right

right----->left

• -1
• -sensory
• -smell

• -2
• -sensory
• -vision

• -3
• -motor
• -eye movement

• -4
• -motor
• -eye movement

• -5
• -sensory and motor (mixed)
• -chewing movements and sensitivity of face

• -6
• -motor
• -eye movement

• -7
• -motor and sensory
• -muscles of facial expression and taste at front 2/3 of tongue

• -8
• -sensory
• -hearing and balance

• -9
• -motor and sensory
• -movement of pharynx, salivary secretion, taste at back 1/3 of tongue

• -10
• -sensory and motor
• -sensitivity and movement of the heart, GI tract, larynx, and lungs

• -11
• -motor
• -movement of neck muscles, swallowing

• -12
• -motor
• -movement of tongue

• 1. Graded potentials
• 2. Action potentials

• -the strength of the GP is directly proportional to the strength of the stimulus
• -stimulus will open mechanical or chemical gates on dendrites and cell bodies
• -the more channels that are open, the greater the ion flow
• -the stronger the initial amplitude, the farther the GP will travel along the neuron

B/c of cytoplasmic resistance (ions leak out)

• If the signal at the axon hillock is above threshold, voltage-gated channels will open and an action potential is generated
• -an action potential depolarizes the axon terminal
• -then voltage-gated Ca channels open, letting Ca into the cell
• -this triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicle content
• -and a neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds w/ receptors on post-synaptic cell

when the neurotransmitter causes depolarization of the post synaptic cell

when the neurotransmitter causes hyperpolarization of the post synaptic cell

the frequency of AP propagation= more of less ion flow=longer of shorter cell is above threshold= greater or lesser # of APs generated

less

• when 2 GPs arrive from the same place close together in time
• -if far apart in time, 2 GPs will not create an AP

• when 2 or more pre-synaptic neurons act at the same time on a single post-synaptic cell
• -BUT can have inhibition of AP if there are 2 excitatory neurons and 1 inhibitory

multiple signals acting on the same source/cell

• -PRE-synaptic modulation
• -may affect only a few post-synaptic cells
• -inhibition or excitation happens at one collatoral axon site after action potential has been generated
• -pre-synaptic inhibition=if there is a decrease in neurotransmitter release from pre-synaptic cell
• -pre-synaptic facilitation=if there is an increase in neurotransmitter(keeping Ca channels open)

• -POST-synaptic modulation
• -pre-synaptic neuron acting at the cell body (soma) or dendrites(dendritic) of post-synaptic neuron
• -occurs before an AP has been generated, so it either creates an AP for all target cells or not one at all
• -affects all post-synaptic cells!
• -all (EPSP) or none (IPSP) are affected
• -no neurotransmitter released= no response in target cells (if there is a both an excitatory and inhibitory neuron firing at the same time)
• -general anesthesia

• specialized neuronal structures that detect specific types of energy
• -somatosensory
• -enteroreceptors

the energy form of a stimulus

• sensory receptors are specific for a particulat modality
• --receptors in your eyes are specific for vision

• 1. Chemoreceptors
• 2. Mechanoreceptors
• 3. Photoreceptors
• 4. Thermoreceptors
• 5. Nociceptors

• 1. Simple receptors- neurons w/ free nerve endings
• 2. Complex neural receptors- have nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules
• 3. Special sense receptors- cells that release neurotransmitter onto sensory neurons initiating an AP.

process in which sensory receptors decrease their response to a stimulus over time

• -adapts slowly, transmits signals to the CNS as long as the stimulus persists
• -blood pressure

• -fires when the first stimulus is received, then switches off when the stimulus is at a constant intensity
• -used for non-threatening situations
• -smell of perfume, wearing a watch, wedding ring

• 1. sclera
• 2. cornea

connective tissue in eye

transparent part of eye, allows light to enter

• 1. choroid
• 2. ciliary body
• 3. lens
• 4. iris
• 5. pupil

• 1. retina
• 2. fovea
• 3. optic disk

absorbs light, contains melanin, brownish

attaches the lens, it is continuous w/ the choroid, helps shape the lens

it helps focus light on the retina

pigmented smooth muscle that controls the amount of light allowed in

hole in iris

CNS neural tissue, contains rods (monochromatic) and cones (color)

area of greatest visual acuity, where cones reside

• blind spot
• -no photoreceptors
• -where blood vessels and nerves enter eye

• Starting closest to light
• 1. Inner layer= Ganglion cells (generate APs)
• 2. Middle layer= Bipolar cells
• 3. Outer layer= Photoreceptors (rods + cones)

a depression in the center of the retina that is created by the bipolar and ganglion cells being displaced laterally.

False, only cones!

True

Cones

increases, because the fovea contains mostly cones

• located in the outer segment of rods and cones, they are molecules that absorb light
• -contain photopigments retinal and opsin
• -also contain the Gprotein transducin and the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE)

• HIGH
• OPEN

• Na+
• DEPOLARIZED (-40mV)

Ca++

GLUTAMATE, which communicates w/ bipolar cells

RETINAL

a bleached opsin (less sensitive to light)

TRANSDUCIN

PDE

cGMP, which closes Na+ channels!

closing of Na+ channels

HYPERPOLARIZES it because potassium is leaving the cell

decreases

in the dark

in light

pitch

Hz (hertz)

20-20,000 Hz

dB (decibels)

whether a sound is loud or quiet

how long or short the sound wave is

• Pinna
• Ear canal
• Tympanic Membrane

• Incus
• Malleus
• Stapes
• Oval window
• Round window

• semicircular canals
• oval window
• eustachian tube
• cochlear duct
• tympanic duct
• vestibular duct
• cochlear nerve
• cochlea w/ helicotrema

• sound hits tympanic membrane
• vibrations
• vibration energy hits 3 bones in middle ear which then vibrate
• The oval window is attached to the stapes so then it vibrates
• Fluid waves start in cochlea
• Waves push on membranes of the cochlear duct
• Energy transmits across cochlear duct into the tympanic duct and dissipates back to the middle ear via the round window
• Hair cells in the cochlear duct create APs in the sensory neurons of the cochlear nerve

near the oval window (closest to outer ear)

near the helicotrema (inner ear)

• Three membranous semicircular canals
• 1. anterior canal
• 2. posterior canal
• 3. lateral canal
• Two saclike swellings
• 1. utricle
• 2. saccule

in the bony labyrinth (cavities in the temporal bones)

rotational acceleration

up and down (YES)

side to side (NO)

ear toward each shoulder

detects forward and backwards linear acceleration

detects up and down linear acceleration

• canals= rotational
• swellings= linear

making connections between 2 or more stimuli

repetition of a stimulus

memory of events that can be put into words (recalling someone's bday)

memory of how to do things (ride a bike)

• hippocampus
• temporal lobe

basal ganglia (specifically the striatum)

• cerebellum
• basal nuclei
• premotor cortex

the association cortex

• cannot recall events that have happened before a lesion/accident/disturbance in brain
• can still form new memories

• cannot recall events that have happened after a disturbance in the brain/accident/lesion
• can still remember what happened before the accident

temporary memory loss due to lack of oxygen, blood or brief cerebral ischemia

• anterograde amnesia
• can't store and retain procedural memories
• can't store declarative memories

similar to anterograde amnesia just milder memory deficits

• a deficiency in vitamin B1 (thiamin)
• due to chronic alcoholism
• results in damage to the medial temporal lobe and thalamus
• profound anterograde amnesia
• unaware of memory loss
• loss of declarative and procedural memory

• not the site of memory storage BUT
• important for laying down of relational memories, spatial memories, declarative memories

in the association areas of the frontal and temporal lobes

• Stage 1: anterograde amnesia, careless, disoriented
• Stage 2: loses memory of all recent events
• Stage 3: loss of semantic (understanding of words) and procedural memory too

• can find neurofibrillary tangles in the cells due to hyperphosphorylation of Tau
• plaques found extracellularly
• amyloid beta protein
• huge holes in brain tissue
• thalamus and hippocampus take a hit and shrink in size drastically
• cholinergic neurons in the forebrain degenerate

• an experience increases the functioning of the hippocampal neurons
• results in an increased neural responsivity
• results in increased amplitude and duration of EPSPs
• effect can last for weeks (long term)

• low to moderate release of glutamate
• glutamate binds to AMPA receptor which opens sodium channels=depolarization
• glutamate binds to NMDA receptor which opens calcium channels, but channels are blocked by Magnesium ions
• EPSP may or may not reach threshold

• more glutamate released
• more sodium channels open
• greater depolarization state repels Magnesium ions and allows calcium entry
• results in secondary messenger activation of Protein Kinase 1 and 2
• AMPA/sodium channels stay open longer
• release of paracrine PK2 which acts back on presynaptic cell to release more glutamate
• autocrine action of PK1

• EOG + EEG + EMG
• electrooculograph (eye movement)
• electromyograph (muscle tone)
• electroencephalograph (voltage generated by excitation of dendrites of pyramidal cells in cortex)

• 1 NonREM: relaxation, falling asleep
• 2 NonREM: light sleep
• 3 NonREM: deep sleep
• 4 NonREM: deep sleep
• 5 REM: lots of dreaming, rapid eye movement

the regular occurrence of REM and nonREM sleep in cycles of less than 24 hours

• our 24 hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness
• controlled by the SCN
• correlated with body temp

• weight loss
• increase in cortisol (stress hormone)
• decrease in insulin sensitivity
• decrease growth hormone
• decreased appetite
• decrease in leptin
• increase in ghrelin
• mania occassionally

• death (in rats)
• hallucinations
• immune problems
• irritability
• memory loss

True

the posterior lateral hypothalamus

ventrolateral preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus (VLPO)

• RAS (reticular activating system)
• cortex

• tonic
• phasic

during wake

during wake

during wake and REM equally high

during wake

hypocretin/orexin

during wake

• norepinephrine
• 5HT (serotonin)
• dopamine
• ACh

dopamine

False

they all suppress REM sleep so you may sleep well during the first night but then you will have REM rebound