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right and left halves of the cortex
hemispheres
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flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord
neural plate
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end of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches
dendrite
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any behavior that benefits another person
prosocial behavior
-
fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly
myelin
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experiencing another person's feelings
empathy
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relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
secure attachment
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play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other
simple social play
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behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation
social referencing
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crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings
animism
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process by which an individual's unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and organization
experience-dependent growth
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perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
texture gradient
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process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans
experience-expectant growth
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according to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge
accommodation
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processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
perception
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enduring socioemotional relationship between infants and their caregivers
attachment
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according to Piaget, a process by which children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs
equilibration
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glass-covered platform that appears to have a "shallow" and a "deep" side; used to study infants' depth perception
visual cliff
-
wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
cerebral cortex
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first distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults
stranger wariness
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tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
axon
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gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
synaptic pruning
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relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation
avoidant attachment
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linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
integration
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according to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows
assimilation
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pattern of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are placed on the scalp
electroencephalogram (EEG)
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ability to move around in the world
locomote
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theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
dynamic systems theory
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brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
frontal cortex
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children's belief that living things and parts of living things exist for a purpose
teleological explanations
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difficulty in seeing the world from another's point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period
egocentrism
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a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
linear perspective
-
basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
neuron
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prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior
altruism
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when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing
parallel play
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cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
kinetic cues
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coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs
motor skills
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infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences
core knowledge hypothesis
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method of studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood flow in the brain
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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interaction in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other
constricting actions
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infants' sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes
intersensory redundancy
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according to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
centration
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motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects
fine motor skills
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relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console
resistant attachment
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chemicals released by neurons in order for them to communicate with each other
neurotransmitters
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according to Piaget, a mental structure that organizes information and regulates behavior
scheme
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specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color
cones
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infant's understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child's life
internal working model
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according to Erikson, a young child's understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally; this occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance
will
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center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
cell body
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way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
retinal disparity
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according to Erikson, balance between individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others
purpose
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cues to depth perception that are used to convey depth in drawings and paintings
pictorial cues
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play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age
cooperative play
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first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years
sensorimotor period
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thick bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres
corpus callosum
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children's belief that all living things have an essence that can't be seen but gives a living thing its identity
essentialism
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understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself
object permanence
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smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably
visual acuity
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kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on the fact that an object fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer
visual expansion
-
distinguishing and mastering individual motions
differentiation
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relationship in which infants don't seem to understand what's happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers
disorganized (disoriented) attachment
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young children who have learned to walk
toddlers
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extent to which brain organization is flexible
neuroplasticity
-
smile that infants produce when they see a human face
social smiles
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theoretical view that many human behaviors represent successful adaptations to the environment
evolutionary psychology
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ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
theory of mind
-
according to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
hope
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emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior
basic emotions
-
kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than do distant objects
motion parallax
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individuals' actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction
enabling actions
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early, unsteady form of walking done by infants
toddling
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being small for one's age because of inadequate nutrition
malnourished
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