Chapter 1

The study of structure

Regional, surface, and systemic anatomy

cytology and histology

embryology

• Mastery of anatomical terminology

• Observation

• Manipulation

• Palpation

• Auscultation

• The study of function at many levels

• • Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g.,
• renal or cardiovascular physiology)

• • Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic
• to cellular and molecular)

• • Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical
• currents, pressure, and movement)

• Basic chemical principles

• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

• Function always reflects structure

• • What a structure can do depends on its specific
• form

• • All cells depend on organ systems to meet their
• survival needs

• • Organ systems work cooperatively to perform
• necessary life functions

• Plasma membranes

• Skin

• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)

• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)

• The ability to
• sense and respond to stimuli

• Withdrawal reflex

• Control of breathing rate

• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

• Absorption of simple molecules into blood

• All chemical
• reactions that occur in body cells

• Catabolism and anabolism

• The removal of wastes from
• metabolism and digestion

• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces

• Cellular division for growth or repair

• Production of offspring

• Increase in size of a body
• part or of organism

• Chemicals for energy and cell building

• • Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
• vitamins

• Essential for energy release (ATP production)

• Most abundant chemical in the body

• Site of chemical reactions

• Affects rate of chemical reactions

• • For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the
• lungs

• • Maintenance of a relatively stable internal
• environment despite continuous outside changes

• A dynamic state of equilibrium

• • Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of
• many factors (variables)

• • Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the
• communication via nerve impulses and hormones

• Monitors the environment

• • Responds to stimuli (changes
• in controlled variables)

• • Determines the set point at
• which the variable is maintained

• Receives input from receptor

• • Determines appropriate
• response

• Receives output from control center

• Provides the means to respond

• • Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus
• (feedback)

• • The response reduces or shuts off the original
• stimulus

• Examples:
• • Regulation of body temperature (a nervous
• mechanism)

• • Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine
• mechanism)

• Receptors sense decreased blood volume

• • Control center in hypothalamus stimulates
• pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• • ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return
• more water to the blood

• • The response enhances or exaggerates the
• original stimulus

• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect

• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:

• • Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
• (Chapter 28)

• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

• Disturbance of homeostasis

• Increases risk of disease

• Contributes to changes associated with aging

• • May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart
• failure)