Biology Final

-the scientific study of life

-substances that cannot be broken down into other substances
-92 naturally occurring elements on Earth

-occur in smaller amounts
-are essential for life

-a chemical compound that releases H+ to solution
-0-7 on pH scale

-a compound that accepts H+ and removes it from a solution
-7-14 on pH scale

-substances that resist change in pH

-carbohydrates
-proteins
-nucleic acids
-not lipids

-links two monomers together
-removes a molecule of water

-breaks bonds between monomers
-adds a molecule of water
-reverses the dehydration reaction

-sugars or sugar polymers
-include small sugar molecules in soft drinks
-long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes

-simple sugars that cannot be broken down by hydrolysis into smaller sugars
-build carbs

-a double sugar
-constructed from two monosaccharides
-formed by a dehydration reaction

-complex carbohydrates
-made of long chains of sugar units and polymers of monosaccharides

-neither macromolecules nor polymers
-Hydrophobic, unable to mix with water

-a key component of cell membranes
-the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids, such as estrogen and testosterone

-polymers constructed form amino acid monomers
-perform most of the tasks the body needs to function
-form enzymes

-chemicals that change the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed in the process

-specific sequence of amino acids in a protein

-pleated sheet/alpha and beta helix

-polypeptide

-protein with four polypeptides

-a specific stretch of DNA that programs the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

-bacteria and archaea

-plants, fungi and animals
-only cells that have organelles

-tiny structures that build proteins

-membrane-bound structures that perform specific functions
-most important is the nucleus

-fibers formed by long DNA molecules and associated proteins that are stored in the nucleus

-each long chromatin fiber

-organelles that perform photosynthesis

-the sites of cellular respiration, which produce ATP from the energy of food molecules

-the total of all chemical reactions in an organism
-most reactions require assistance of enzymes

-products of a reaction inhibit the enzyme required for its production
-prevents the cell from wasting resources

-has a higher concentration of solute

-has a lower concentration of solute

-requires oxygen

-does not require the use of oxygen

-can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule consumed

glycolysis

-the anaerobic harvest of food energy
-relies on glycolysis to produce ATP
-able to sustain many types of microorganisms

-used by plants, some protists and some bacteria
-transforms light energy into chemical energy
-uses carbon dioxide and water as starting materials
-the reactants are the waste products of cellular respiration
-sunlight provides the energy
-glucose and oxygen are produced

-convert solar energy to chemical energy
-two types of photosystems: water-splitting and NADPH-producing
-located in the thylakoid membrane

-uses the products of the light reactions to make sugar from carbon dioxide
-functions like a sugar factory within the stroma of a chloroplast
-regenerates the starting material with each turn

-the orderly sequence of events that extend from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell to its own division into two cells

-most of a cell cycle is spent in this phase
-doubles everything in its cytoplasm
-grows in size

-chromatin fibers coil
-each chromosome has two identical sister chromatids

-begins when sister chromatids separate
-each chromosome daughter is now its own full fledged chromosome

-mitotic spindle is now fully formed
-chromosomes are in the middle of the cell
-pulls chromosomes

-happens during telophase
-divides the cytoplasm
-different in plant and animal cells

-where the nucleus and its contents divide evenly into two daughter nuclei

-sexual reproduction

-make up DNA and RNA
-joined by a sugar-phosphate backbone
-nitrogenous bases found in DNA: T, C, A, and G (in RNA, U instead of T)

DNA backbone

-like a rope ladder twisted into a spiral
-ropes at the sides represent the sugar-phosphate backbone
-each rung represents a pair of bases connected by hydrogen bonds

-organism's genetic makeup
-what is supposed to be there

-organism’s physical traits
-what can be seen of an organism

-DNA to RNA

-RNA into protein
-the conversion from the nucleic acid language to the protein language
-requires: mRNA, ATP, enzymes, ribosomes, tRNA

-a nucleotide sequence with a “start transcribing” signal

initiation of transcription

elongation of transcription

termination of transcription

-sequence of DNA bases with a "strop transcribing" signal

-adding a 5 prime cap and poly A tail
-removing introns
-splicing exons together to form messenger RNA

-any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
-can change the amino acids in a protein

-are not cellular
-cannot reproduce on their own

-misfolded proteins

-the study of the structure of an organism

-the study of the function of an organism’s structural equipment

-an integrated group of similar cells that perform a specific function

-covers the surface of the body
-lines organs and cavities within the body

-may be liquid, jellylike or solid

-the most widespread connective tissue
-binds epithelia to underlying tissue
-holds organs in place

-stores fat
-stockpiles energy
-pads and insulates the body

-a connective tissue with a matrix of liquid
-contains red and white blood cells suspended in plasma

-has a dense matrix of collagen
-forms tendons and ligaments

-has a strong rubbery matrix
-functions as a flexible, boneless skeleton
-forms the shock-absorbing pads that cushion the vertebrae of the spinal column

-a rigid connective tissue
-has a matrix of collagen fibers hardened with deposits of calcium salts

-consists of bundles of long, thin, cylindrical cells
-has specialized proteins that contract when stimulated by a nerve

-attached to bones by tissue
-responsible for voluntary movements
-striated because the contractile apparatus forms a banded pattern in each cell or fiber

-composed of cells that are branched and striated
-found only in heart tissue
-responsible for the contraction of the heart

-named for its lack of obvious striations
-found in the walls of various organs
-involuntary

-makes communication of sensory information possible
-is found in the brain and spinal cord
-consists of a network of neurons

-consists of two or more tissues packaged into one working unit that performs a specific function

-the body’s tendency to maintain relatively steady conditions in the internal environment when the external environment changes

-most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on this common principle
-results of a process inhibit the same process
-like when a thermostat turns off a heater when room temperature rises to a set point

-the results of a process intensify that same process
-uterine contractions during childbirth

-mainly feed on plants

eat animals

eat plants and animals

-the breakdown of food to small nutrient molecules

-the uptake of the small nutrient molecules by cells lining the digestive tract

-begins the process of digestion
-involves physical processes like chewing
-begins in the mouth

-the chemical breakdown of food by digestive enzymes
-begins in the mouth
-most occurs in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine

-the longest part of the alimentary canal
-the major organ for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream

-shorter, but wider, than the small intestine
-about 1.5 meters in length
-absorbs water

-receives blood in the heart

-part of the heart that pumps blood away from the heart

-carry blood away from the heart

-the site of exchange between blood and interstitial fluid

-return blood back to the heart

blood path

-sets the tempo of the heartbeat

-cells that carry oxygen

-cells that fight infection

-aid blood clotting