biology II final

Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal pouches, post-anal tail

Have all chordate features as adults

sea squirts

notochord is replaced by vertebral column

skull, cephalization, complex sense organs, vertenral column

endoskeleton

sexually

paired appendages, closed circulatory system, efficient respiration (lungs or gills), and efficient excretory system.

aquatic chordates with gills, fins and scales (most)

jawless, cartilaginous, and bony

no jaws, no scales, no paired fins

jawless fish-marine scavenger; no vertebral column. most authorities don't classify them as fish

jawless aquatic parasites. have a cartilaginous vertebral column

hinged jaws (developed from gill arches), paired fins, most have scales and most are carnivores

cartilaginous fish; sharks and rays. marine predators

cartilaginous skeletons, denticles (tooth-like scales), exposed gill slits

bony fish with broad, flattened scales. operculum, swim bladder

covers gill chamber and helps pump water across gills

characteristic of osteoichthyes, gas-filled sac for buoyancy, compensates for a heavier skeleton

Ray-finned fish (most common), lobe-finned fish

paired fins (fleshy extensions of body), similar to ancestors of land vertebrates, lungfish & coelacanth

aquatic larvae (gills), terrestrial adults (lungs); many exceptions

small lungs supplemented by thin, moist skin. no scales. three-chambered hearts, either ectothermic or poikilothermic

absorbs heat from environment

variable body temperature

external fertilization (eggs deposited in water), aquatic larvae, metamorphosis

lack tails, herbivorous larvae, carnivorous adults

long tails, carnivores

legless, fossorial, reproduce by internal fertizilation

fluid-filled sac that allows embryos to develop on land

deposited on land, leathery or calcareous shells, extraembryotic membrane

functions in protection, excretion, respiration, nutrition

conserves water, prevents gas exchange; thorachic breathing (more efficient)

conserve water

internally

reptiles (turtles, tuataras, lizards & snakes, crocodylians), birds, mammals

turtles, reptiles (birds, tuataras, lizards & snakes, crocodylians), mammals

Turtles, tuataras, squamates, crocodylians

protective shell with no teeth

lizard-like reptiles, that are found only in new zealand

have paired copulatory organs, include lizards and snakes

squamates with four limbs, predators, moveable eyelids and external ears

legless squamates, carnivors, no external ears, no eyelids

semiaquatic predators, build nests and care for offspring

ectothermic or poikilothermic

class aves or reptilia. amniotes with feathers

contour (flight) and down (insulation)

wings, hollow bones, beak (no teeth), enlarged sternum with well developed muscles, efficient respiratory/circulatory systems, excellent vision and muscle reflexes

endothermic/homeothermic, feathers and fat for insulation, increased metabolism

internal fertilization, hard-shelled eggs, hatchlings require parental care

mammary glands (modified sweat glands), hair

outgrowths of skin made of keratin, functions in insulation, protection, sensation, attraction, etc.

endothermic/homeothermic

internal fertilization and development, live birth, placenta

temporary organ that supplies developing offspring w/nutrients and oxygen, removes waste

teeth; brains

order monotremata, duck-billed platypus, spiny anteater, have cloaca, secrete milk onto fur

anal-uro-genital hole, through which eggs are passed through

nipples for offspring to feed from

immature newborns crawl into pouch, attach to nipple to continue development. most common in australia

have placenta (organ of exchange between mother & embryo), parasitic

eutherian mammals, have continuously growing incisors for gnawing, largest mammal order, occupy terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal, and semiaquatic niches

mice, chipmunks

gophers, prairie dogs

squirrels, porcupines

muskrats, beavers

flying mammals (bats), leathery membrane supported by digital bones, echolocation

primitive mammals, moles & shrews

flesh eating mammals with canine teeth, digitigrades; dogs, cats, weasels, bears, seals

generalized mammals with five digits per limb, often arboreal (monkeys, apes, humans)

even-toed ungulates (large herbivores), walk on tips of third and fourth toes, have horns or antlers

(buffalo, sheep, deer, goats, cows, pigs, hippopotami)

horns are permanent and non-branching, antlers are deciduous and branching

large marine mammals, with pectoral limbs (flippers), no pelvic limbs, whales and dolphins

chisel-like incisors, hind limbs longer than forelimbs (rabbits, hares, pikas)

odd-toed ungulates, walk on tips of 1 or 3 hoofed toes (horses, zebras, rhinoceroses)

massive, five-toed ungulates with trunks, and elongated upper incisors (tusks), elephants

arboreal specializations: grasping hands and feet, large eyes with binocular vision, well developed brain, prolonged infancy to learn behaviors and social structures

five dexterous digits, opposable thumb, big toe, nails instead of claws

large eyes, directed forward, depth perception (3D vision)

sensory information; hand muscles

Lemurs

long prehensile tails, flattened noses

lack prehensile tails, protruding noses

no tails, brachiate (knuckle-walk)

small arboreal primates

large arboreal primates

largest, live on ground

live on ground and in trees

no tails, bi-pedal, patchy hair, complex culture

presumed ancestor of apes and humands, quadrupeds

bipedalization

"southern ape"

1-1.4 m tall (based on pelvic, leg, and foot bones, footprints), walked erect, 450-500 cc cranical capacity, ate seeds, nuts, fruits and vegetables, common australopithecine and human ancestor

human-like hands and feet, 500 cc cranial capacity, possibly meat eater

diet of coarse vegetation. australopithecus robustus (southern Africa), australopithecus boisei (eastern Africa)

>600 cc cranial capacity, human jaws and food structure, use of tools

"handy man", used/made tools, possible meat eater, 700 cc cranial capacity

"workman", used well-crafted tools

"upright man" migrated out of Africa, used elaborate tools, discovered fire, wore clothing, built shelters. likely hunters adapted to cold climates, 850 cc cranium, later 1200 cc. (homo heidelbergensis)

skilled tool users, took care of elderly and sick, had burials and spiritual beliefs, brains larger than modern humans

"hobbits", very tiny, insular dwarfism, descendents of homo erectus

fully modern humans

A. africanus, H. ergaster, and H. neaderthalis--exact relationships undetermined

multiregional hypothesis vs. out of africa hypothesis

h. erectus left africa 2 million years ago and dispersed, homo sapiens emerged over a large geographic area, all living humans come from homo erectus

homo erectus left africa and different populations became reproductively isolated and evolved independently, and homo sapiens arose in one place (Africa/Middle East) and migrated out, replacing all other species of humans without interbreeding

Domain Eukaryotae, Kingdom Plantae, multicellular organisms with no muscle fibers, photosynthetic autotrophs

chlorophylls A & B, store startch, DNA similar to stoneworts

alternation of generations, sporophyte & gametophyte

produces haploid spores by meiosis, which develop into the next generation

produces haploid gametes by mitosis, which unite to form the zygote (first cell of the sporophyte)

dominant, larger, longer

sporophyte

Solution: stay small and close to the ground

Solution: develop vascular tissue (lead to sporophyte dominance)

waxy cuticle prevents plant from drying out, but limits gas exchange.

stomata--controllable openings for gas exchange

solutions vary, spores etc.

unfiltered sunlight and CO₂

• 1. protection of embryo (all land plants except algae)
• 2. vascular tissues (most plants except mosses)
• 3. seeds (most plants except mosses & ferns)
• 4. flowers (not mosses, ferns, conifers)

no vascular tissue, gametophyte dominance

archegonia (female--produces eggs)

antheridia (male, produces sperm, must have water to swim to archegonia)

sporophyte, wind-dispersed

• 1. Hornworts
• 2. liverworts
• 3. mosses

bryophyte, leaf-like, dominant gametophyte, vertical sporangia, (structure where spores are produced) stomata

flattened, lobed bodies with distinct top and bottom surfaces. have rhizoids

root-like hairs that project into soil

bryophytes, stem-like bodies with radial leaf-life structures, rhizoids

dominant gametophyte, sporophyte is parasitic upon female gametophyte

wind-dispersed spores germinate into protonemia (algae-like filaments), which produce shoots with reproductive organs. male has antheridia, female has archegonia

sustains development of sporophytes and prevent embryo from drying out

foot (grows into gametophyte), stalk, upper capsule (sporangium-produces haploid spores by meiosis)

colonize, break it down

peat moss (soil conditioner, fuel)

abundant in Arctic and Antarctic, most diverse in tropics, uncommon in deserts

have vascular tissues, true roots, stems & leaves, and sporophyte generation is dominant

transports water and minerals from soil to plant

transports organic materials within plant (sugars, nutrients)

taller

sporophyte

club mosses, ferms and their relatives

stems are covered with scalelike leaves, called "ground pines", seedless vascular plants

seedless vascular, branching stems w/o leaves or roots

stems with periodic whorls of leaves, seedless vascular

varies from low-lying to tree-sized, has rhizomes and roots, fronds (large leaves)

horizontal stems

fiddleheads

water-dependent, germinating spores form prothallus (contains archegonia & antheridia), sperm require water to reach egg

dominant, embryo outgrows archegonium. leaves and roots appear above/below the prothallus. sporangia form spores and develop in sori (covered by indusium). meiosis occurs within sporangia to produce spores

small heart-shaped structure, has both archegonia & antheridia

"naked seed", no fruit, conifers, pine, spruce trees

"enclosed seed", has fruit, flowering plants

embryonic sporphytes, stores food for embryo and provides protection

zygote

dormant

male gametophytes, replace externally swimming sperm

transfer of male gametophyte to the vicinity of the femal gametophyte, sperm are delivered through a pollen tube

gymnosperms, cone-bearing palm-like plants native to tropical and subtropical regions

gymnosperms, only on surviving species, resists pollution

gymnosperms, three surviving genera

cone-bearing, needle-like leaves (retains water well), tolerate temperature extremes, are usually evergreen (gymnosperms!)