-
structuralism
perspective that the task of psycholgy is to analzye consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related; introspection; Titchener
-
functionalism
based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness rather than its structure; James
-
psychoanalytic
attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinatns of behavior; Sigmund Freud
-
behaviorism
a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study and observe behavior; John Watson, Skinner
-
humanism
a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth; Carl Rodgers & Abraham Maslow
-
applied psychology
the branch concerned with every day practical problems
-
clinical psychology
the branch concerned with the diagnosis and treament of psychologial problems and disorders
-
biological perspective
believes that much of the human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of the bodily structure and biochemical processes that allow organisms to behave
-
evolutionary psychology
examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations
-
positive psychology
uses theory and reserach to better understand the postitive, adaptive, creative, and fufilling aspects of human existence
-
basic research
research for research sake
-
applied research
answering questions for application
-
correlational/descriptive research
plain description; cannot rule out any rival hypotheses
-
naturalistic observation
observing naturally ocurring behavior in as subtle a way as possible; cons are that subjects may know they are being watched, time consuming, ethical issues, only public behavior
-
self report
asking about sensitive topics or rare behaviors thorugh questionaire or survey (inexpensive); cons can be bad interviewer, bad survey, dishonest or lazy survey takers
-
trace measure
looking at behavioral biproducts or artifacts left behind; accretion is adding, erosion is taking way
-
case study
a descriptive study of just one person used as the first steps into unknown areas; cons are that it's very time consuming, expensive, and subjective
-
experimental research
includes control and manipulation of environment
-
random assignment
rules out other variables
-
confounding variables
any variable that can affect the results
-
demand characteristics
anything that might cue the subjects into the purpose of the experiment
-
Hawthorne effect
change in behavior because people know they're being observed
-
double blind experiment
both participants and experimenters are blind to variables
-
sampling bias
differences between voluneets and non-voluneets can effect results
-
guidelines for ethical research (6)
informed consent, voluntary participation, right to withdraw at all times, minimize harm and discomfot, insure confidentiality, and deception only if justifiable
-
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
-
peripheral nervous system
all the nerves that radiate from CNS to the rest of the body
-
autonomic nervous system
controls interal organs and involuntary functions
-
somatic nervous system
controls muscular systems and external sensor receptors
-
sympathetic CNS
state of arousal; fight or flight
-
parasympathetic CNS
calm state; rest and digest
-
neuron cell
communicates information throughout the nervous system
-
sensory (afferent) neurons
bring sensory information in and send to the CNS
-
motor (efferent) neurons
transmit information outwards from the CNS back to the sensory neurons
-
intraneuron/association neurons
link sensory and motor neurons inside the spinal cord
-
glial
"nerve glue" that feeds and removes dead neurons
-
synapse or synaptic gap
the small fluid filled space between two neurons
-
action potential (3 steps)
the brief change in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon; 1) neuron recieves sensory signal 2) sodium moves into the neuron and the charge goes from -70mv to +40mv 3) neuron starts pumping sodium out; threshhold is at -55mv
-
nodes of ranvier
places along the axon where there is no glial
-
myelin sheath
glial that surrounds axon and helps message to travel faster
-
axon
long part of neuron that transmits messages; the thicker the faster
-
axon terminals
parts at the end of the axon that release neurotrasnmitters into the synapse to other neuron and send messages
-
dendrites
parts near the nucleus that recieve messages from other neurons
-
presynaptic/postsynaptic neurons
presynaptic sends the message and post synaptic recieves the message
-
synaptic transmission (3 steps)
transmission of neurotransmitters between two neurons in synapse; 1) presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synapse as synaptic vesicles rupture 2) neurotransmitters bind bind to side of postsynaptic neuron and are then released 3) reuptake: presynaptic neuron absorbs neurotransmitters, destroyed, or drift off
-
lesion
removing brain parts or burning precisely; not very ethical and limiting
-
electrical brain stimulation
using electrodes to stimulate different ares of the brain and see what happens
-
transcranial magnetic stimulation
using a magnet to temporarily affect surface part of brain
-
electroencephalograph (EEG)
measures electrical activity in the brain, but not in specific areas
-
computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
forms picture based on composite x-rays
-
positron emission tomography (PET scan)
injecting the brain with glucose; recieves a horizontal, color coded slice view of brain
-
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
very powerful magnetism stimulates hydrogen atoms and gives detailed image of brain from different angles
-
functional MRI
shows blood flow and MRI images
-
the hindbrain includes...
medulla, pons, reticular formation/activating system, and cerebellum
-
medulla
controls involuntary body funtions
-
pons
connects lower and higher region; controls arousal and sleep
-
reticular formation
involved in arousal and sleep, attention and consiousness
-
cerebellum
controls coordinated movement
-
midbrain
recieves auditory and visual information
-
forebrain
involved in higher level thinking, emotions, and personality; includes thalamus and limbic system
-
thalamus
sensory relay stations for everything but smell
-
limbin system (3)
involved in motivation and emotion; includes hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala
-
hypothalamus
pleasure center; controls basic drives and emotions (4 Fs)
-
amygdala
involved in emotion, aggression, and fear
-
cerebral cortex
involved in higher level thinking
-
frontal lobe
located near forehead; involed in higher level thinking, judgement, and conttols movement
-
parietal lobe
top back of head; key for sensations
-
occiptal lobe
at low back of head; visual functioning
-
temporal lobe
at sides by ears and involved in hearing
-
Broca's area
controls production of speech
-
Wernicke's area
controls understanding of language
-
left hemisphere
controls right side of body; involved in speech, language, logic, math
-
right hemisphere
controls left side of body; involed in non-verbal, creativity, spatial ability, artistic
-
sclera
white, protective outer covering of eye
-
cornea
transparent, fluid filled, curved, fixed size area of eye
-
fovea
the center of the retina; image is upside down and backwards here
-
pupil
a hole controlled by the iris muscle that contracts and relaxes based on different things
-
iris
colored area of eye that also has red back layer
-
lens
changes shape with cilary muscles to be round when something is close and flat when far away; transparent
-
vitreous humour
jelly that protects eye
-
tranductions
the conversion of energy into neural impulses that ocurrs in the retinal cells
-
myopia (nearsightedness)
not being able to see far away because the eye is too long
-
hyperopia (farsightedness)
not being able to see up close because the eye is too short
-
rods
light sensitive cells that are located in periphery
-
cones
responsible for color and clear daylight vision; in fovea
-
optic chiasm
where optic nerves cross over in the brain, going to the thalamus
-
order cells in eye going towards optic nerve
ganglion, bipolar, photoreceptor
-
circadian rhythm
24 hour clock controlled by the hypothalamus; three eight hour cycles
-
stage 1 sleep
theta waves and last for five to tens minutes; hypnic jerk
-
stage 2 sleep
theta waves and last for 10 to 15 minutes; sleep spindles
-
stage 3 sleep
beginning of delta waves and last for 30 minutes
-
stage four sleep
delta waves and deep sleep for thrity minutes
-
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
stage during which most dreams occur and longest stage
-
agonist
mimics neurotransmitters and causes more firing
-
antagonist
blocks neurotransmitters from functioning or speeds reuptake, slowing firing
-
stimulants
mimics sympathetic nervous system; elevates heart rate and mood and decreases appetite; rapid tolerance and psychological dependence; includes cocaine, caffien, nicotine, amphetamines, and methamphetamines
-
depressants/sedatives
decrease or depress arousal in SNS; includes alcohol and barbituates
-
hallucinogens
modify consciousness causing eurphoria by increasing serotonin levels; includes LSD, PSP, and ecstasy
-
narcotics/opiates
mimic endorphins, by increasing drowsiness and euphoria, pain relief; includes morphine and heroin
-
marijuana
depressant, narcotic, and hallucinogen
-
classical conditioning
learning an association between two stimuli
-
unconditioned stimulus
unlearned stimulus (meat)
-
unconditioned response
unlearned response (salivation)
-
conditioned stimulus
learned stimulus (tone)
-
conditioned response
learned response (salivation)
-
shaping
method of successive approximations or reinforcing behaviors closer and closer to desired behavior
-
extinction
removing the effect of the uncondtiioned stimulus
-
stimulus generalization
being more likley to respond to a stimulus that is simalra to the conditioned stimulus
-
stimulus discrimination (classical)
responding to some stimuli but not others
-
operant conditioning
when there is a controlled effect on the environment and initiate a behavior to creat a specific response
-
Thorndike's law of effect
the law that behaviors are modified if they are followed closely in time by reward or punishment
-
Skinner's box
operant conditioning chamber with very controlled environment with lights and shock; rats must press levers to recieve water and food
-
positive reinforcement
adding a rewarding stimulus
-
negative reinforcement
removing an aversive stimulus
-
positive punishment
removing a positive stimlulus
-
negative punishment
addding an aversive stimulus
-
stimulus discrimination (operant)
reinforcement being avaible for a behavior only in certain situations
-
continuous reinforcement
reward after every behavior; not good
-
ratio schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement after a number of times; most effective; fixed or variable ratio (best)
-
interval schedule of reinforcement
recieving reinforcement after a period of time; less effective; fixed interval or variable interval
-
observational learning
requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (usually reinforcement)
-
Bobo doll experiment
Bandura had children watch aggressive behavior in adults towards Bobo doll, live or on TV; if rewarded in watching would also act agressive and come up with novel agressive acts
-
primacy effect
remembering information presented first in a list
-
recency effect
most recently presented information being recalled best
-
sensory register (2)
mometary imprint of sensory information; iconic or visual held for .5 seconds; echoic or sound held for 3 seconds
-
short term memory
held for less than 20 seconds; by chunking can remember 7±2 units at a time
-
long term memory
holds for greater than 30 seconds; permanent storage that we are not always able to access
-
ecoding
putting information into your long term memory
-
structural encoding
shallow imprint of visual image
-
phonemic encoding
sound imprint that is slightly deeper
-
semantic encoding
meaning imprint that is deepest; can be done through connect to other long term memories
-
implicit/procedural LT memory
know how of well learned behaviors and processes i.e. tying shoes
-
explicit/declarative LT memory
factual information
-
semantic LT memory
facts about the outside world
-
episodic LT memory (2)
autobiographical memories; retrospective is aboute the past and prospective is memory to do things in future
-
retrograde amnesia
being unable to remember the past
-
anterograde amnesia
losing emmories of the future
-
long term potentiation (LTP)
long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway; sea slugs
-
reliability
whether results are repeatable; scores must correlate with positive r scores
-
validity
whether a test measures what it's designed to measure
-
face validity
whether it looks like it has questions about the subject
-
construct validity
does test correlate with another test of its type
-
criterion validity
accuracy of test
-
standford-binet intelligence test
mental age/chronological age*100 gives iQ
-
wesheler adult intelligence scale
geared toward adults; the older, the more reliable results are
-
distribution of IQ scores
mental retardation is below 70; giftedness is above 30
-
heritability
the extent to which individual differences in a charascteristic are due to difference in genetic make up of people within a given group; 40-70% due to genetics
-
twin/adoptive studies on intelligence
stronger relationship between twins raised together, but still high apart; stronger relationship between biological parent and child, but still strong between adoptive parent as well
-
periods of prenatal development (3)
1) germinal - zygote from 0-2 weeks, dividing into different types of cells 2) embryo - blastocyst from 2-9 weeks, forming major parts and attaches to uterine wall 3) fetus - 9 weeks til birth, rapid organ growth and tons of REM, can survive at 7 months
-
cognitive developmental stages (4 and ages)
developed by Piaget; sensorimotor (0-2), peroperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-12), formal perational (12 up)
-
sensorimotor period
object permanence when out of sight, stranger anxiety, learning through reflexes
-
peroperational period
using symbols to represent objects, self oriented, fantasies, undeveloped sense of time
-
concrete operational
consider others viewpoints, conservation (ability to distinguish not just number but size of objects)
-
formal operational period
thinks abstractly
-
id
most primitive drive that disregards society and logic
-
ego
reality principle that we can't always gratify id, and blocks id from concsciousness; acquired around 1
-
superego
societal values and morality prinicple
-
stages of psychosexual development (5)
oral 0-2, anal 2-4, phallic 4-5, latency 6-puberty, genital puberty onward
-
oral stage
recieve pleasure from mouth; conflict is weaning way from mother's break
-
anal stage
recieve pleasure from anus, dfecating; toilet training
-
phallic stage
recieve pleasure from genitals and desire opposite sex parent, while identifying with same sex; oedipal complex (boys) fear castration by father; electra complex (girls) PENIS ENVY
-
latent
dormant sexual urges and no conflict
-
genital stage
sexual urges reawken and lead to gratification
-
projective personality measures
ambiguos stimulus presentend in the test should cause subjective to project in stimulus; rorschach ink bloks and thematic apperceptions test
-
big five personality traits
openness to expience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
-
objective trait measures
minnestora muliphasic inventory, 16 PF, myers-briggs
-
Eysenck
introvert/extrovert central nervous system research
-
humanistic personality theory
people are in need of unconditional positive regard and actual self and self concept to overal (congruence, not incongruence)
-
maslow's hierarchy of needs
physiological, saftey, belonging, esteem, self actualization
-
social cognitive theory
Bandura combined cofnitive and behavioral unlike Skinner; reciprocal determinism is affect of environment and self efficacy is abiltiy to perform in one situation
-
situational specificity
Mischel; personality depends on the siutation
-
approach-approach conflict
two desirable goals and must choose one
-
avoidance-avoidance conflict
choosing between two undesirable goals
-
aproach-avoidance conflict
having both a negative and positive goal
-
general adaption syndrome
Seyle; during alarm we precieve something as a threat and CNS kicks in; during resistance we become even stronger; if we reach exhaustion because of bad coping mechanisms resistance breaks down
-
constructive stress strategies
healthy behavirs focused on the problem or the stressful emotions
-
destructive stress strategies
health imperative behaviors
-
What constitutes a psychological disorder (4)?
persistent (2 weeks+), abnormal, maladaptive or interfering with daily life, and distress or anxiety causing to individual
-
five axes to classify disorders
1) clinical disorder? 2) personality disorder or mental retardation? 3) health of patient 4) environmental or other stressors 5) how well is the person functioning?
-
prevalence of psychological disorders
40% of population will have disorder, 6% a servere one
-
anxiety disorders
20% prevalence; apprehensive, nervousenes, and feeling of doom
-
generalized anxiety disorder
5% prevalence; anxiety for no reason, sleeplessness, difficultry concentrating
-
panic disorder
3.5% prevalence; heart attack like onsets of anxiety
-
phobia
unrelastic, irrational, or excessive fear of a specific object; being afraid of panic in same situation
-
OCD
2.5% prevalence; obsession thoughts cause anxiety and have compulsive behaviors to help deal with the anxiety
-
post traumatic stress disorder
7% prevalence; anxiety caused by traumatic, uncontrollable, victimizing distress; re-eperienceing scene, avoiding reminds, hyperarousal (difficulty sleeping)
-
etiology for anxiety disorders
behavioral therapy is good for phobias, but negative reinforcement is what spurs OCD; biological-gentically related and brain has more acitivity; cognitive - need to not interpret siuations as threats; psychodynamic and humanistic as well
-
somatoform disorders
having physical symptoms with not physical cause
-
hyprochondriasis
misinterpretting every health probelm as a dangerous, serious one
-
conversion disorder
2% of diagnosis; major change or loss of physical functioning without a physiological reason; paralysis, sezures, coma, blindness
-
etiology of somatoform disorders
behavioral - reinforced for being sick; cognitive - irrational thinking
-
dissociative disorders
loss of memory
-
dissociative amnesia
losing some personal information
-
dissociative fugue
losing all episodic memory caused by stress
-
dissociative identity disorder
developing separate personalities to deal with stress and forgetting personal information while in other personalities
-
etiology for dissociative disorders
behavioral - learned though negative reinforcement to escape from the situation; biological - smaller hippocampal region
-
mood disorders
changes in mood with a good grasp on reality
-
major depressive/unipolar disorder
16% prevalence; feelings of severe sadness, hoplessness, negative thinking pattern, worthlessness, withdrawal from society, change in appetite/sleep
-
dysthymic disorder
mild but chronic disorder
-
season affective disorder
depressiond during winter months because of lack of sunlight; lack of energy and needs light therapy
-
bipolar disorder
2.5% prevalence; alternating states of depression and mania (euphoria); increasing risky behavior, sex, self esteem; many don't want to take medicine
-
etiology for mood disorders
biological - genetic link for depression, low serotonin; behavioral - mania and depression occur from lack of social reinforcement; cognitive - pessimitic or negative thinking pattern pervading all aspects of life, their fault and not going to change; humanistic - blocked self actualization
-
schizophrenia
1% lifetime prevalence; disorganized thoughts and language; delusions of grandeur, control, perscution, or bodily disintegration; inappropriate affects and flat affects; hallucinations; styaing like a statue or one repetitive motion
-
paranoid schizophrenia
suffereing from delusions and auditory hallucinations
-
disorganized schizophrenia
diorganized thought, speech, and affect
-
catatonic schizophrenia
stupor or repetitive activity
-
undifferentiated schizophrenia
overlapping symptoms from other categories
-
positive schizophrenia symptoms
extreme behavior and innaporopriate affect
-
negative schizophrenia symptoms
no affect or movement; lacking emotion
-
etiology for schizophrenia
biological - genetic link, high levels of dopamine, and enlarge ventricles; environmental - many prenatal factors and parent regulation of emotion; cognitive - negative thoughts; psychoanalytic and humanisitic
-
biomedical treatment
altering the function of the brain
-
electroconvulsive therapy
mild schock under sedation; very good for depression, but can cause memory loss
-
psychosurgery
brain surgery, such as severing corpus callosum
-
anti-anxiety meds
mild tranquilizers that mimic GABA; tolerance and dependence problems
-
antidepressants
block reuptake of serotonin and cause increased production; at risk for suicide before all the way better
-
anti-mania meds
mood stabilizers that flattens cycles; can't take withd rugs and alcohol and patients are unwilling to take medication
-
anti-psychotics
used for schizophrenia, breaks with reality; works by blocking rebinding of dopamine
-
deep brain stimulation
pacemaker for brain for severe illnesses
-
who prescribes what levels of drug therapy?
psychologist, MD for severe; counseling psychologist PHD or PsyD for less severe disorders; clinical psychiatrist for chemical imbalances
-
psychodynamic insight therapy
face to face therapy; free association listing of words to get to problem and dream interpretation; resistance and transferance of problem onto therapist can occur
-
humanistic therapy
client drives therapy and working towards congruence; provides a listener that mirrors patient's statements
-
systematic desensitation
for phobias; relaxation techniques and going though anxiety hierarchy with gradual exposure
-
aversion therapy
pairing a bad behavior with an unpleasant conditioned stimulus
-
behavior modification
being reinforced for the wrong behaviors caused illness so treatment involes reinforcing for the correct behaviors
-
token enconomy
rewarding for correct behaviors; gradually wean off and funciton without tokens
-
cognitive-behavioral approach
in conjunction with behavioral therapy; chaning mentality to view events as chalelnges; gratitude journals and alternate acitivty for bad behaviors
-
conformity
Asch's study of line lengths; we change our behavior in response to other people; unamity of group and gorup observance are important
-
obedience
migram shocking study; norm of obedience to authority, experimenter's acceptance of responisbilitiy, incremental nature of shockoing, proximity of experimenter and learner
-
zimbardo prison study
college students pretended to be prisioners and guards and escalated to conflict and abuset; followed one student; deindividuation
-
social loafing
a decreased effort when working in groups; diffusion of responsibility and free sider effect
-
bystander effect
a person in need is less likely to get help when there are more people around than when there are less
-
industrial or personal psychology
finding the right people for the job and keeping them there; selection, job analysis or description, training, performance appraisal
-
attribution theory
fundamental atrribution error; mistakes are attributed internally (or due to person) when it's others and externally (or due to situation) when it's ourselves
-
organizational psycholgy
motivation, work attitude, leadership, and structure of businesses
-
human factor psychology
designing office furnishings to be user friendly and healthy for body
|
|