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Idiopathic
Cause is unknown
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Iatrogenic
- Cause results from unintended or unwanted medical treatment
- - Ex) Hysterectomy: Mistake Dr. Ligates ureter
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Pathogenesis
Development or evolution of disease from initial stimulus to ultimate expression of manifestation of disease
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Symptoms
Subjective feeling of abnormality in the body
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Signs
Objective or observed manifestation of disease
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Sequela
Subsequent pathologic condition resulting from an acute illness
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Alarm state of GAS
Also called fight-or-flight because it provides a surge of energy and physical alterations to either run from or confront danger. To mobilize fight-or-flight, body releases CRH, ACTH, Glucocorticoids,
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Glucocorticoids
Regulate metabolism of glucose, synthesis in the adrenal cortex
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Catecholamines
Consists of Norepinephrine and Epinephrine that are secreted through Simpatico-Adrenal system response and mediates the fight-or-flight response
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Adrenocortical Steroids
Are Cortisol and aldosterone that play an important role to maintain homeostasis. They MAY synergies or antagonize effect of catecholamine.
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Medulla Oblongata
A part of the brain system that is responsible for vital functions, such as respiration and blood circulation
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Mitosis
Leads to two daughter cells with the same DNA and Chromosome contect as the mother cell. Most cells undergo Mitosis
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Meiosis
Leads to four gametocytes, each contains one-half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Meiosis occurs only in reproductive cells.
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Atrophy
Is a reduction in the size of a cell or organ that may occur when cell undergoes reduced workload or disuse, insufficient blood flow, malnutrition, or reduced hormonal and nerve stimulation
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Hypertrophy
Increase in cell size or organ due to increase in workload or hormonal stimulation
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Pathologic Hypertrophy
Is due to disease, for example, cardiac muscle hypertrophy is due to cardiac muscle pumping against increase resistance in patient with hypertension
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Hyperplasia
- Increase the number of normal cells
- - Increase function Capacity
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Metaplasia from Glandular to Squamous Epithelium
- Example of Mainstem bronchus epithelum develops squamous metplasia in response to irritants in cigarette smoke
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Benign prostatic hyperplasia due to an increase in
DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE
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Metaplasia
Replacement of one fully differentiated cell type by another.
- Dysplasia
- Disordered cell growth
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Porto-Oncogene
When mutated they cause uncontrolled cell death
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HPV types 6 and 11 are associated with
genital warts
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Proto-Oncogene
When mutated they cause uncontrolled cell death
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Helper T cell
stimulate B-Cells to mature into plasm cells. Plasma cells synthesize and secrete immunoglobulin
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Suppressor T Cells
Reduce the humoral response
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IGG
It appears in all body fluids and is the major antibody against chronic bacterial and viral infection crosses the placenta
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IGM
Is the first immunoglobulin produced during an immune response usually present in the vascular system
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IGA
Prevents attachment of bacteria and viruses to mucous membranes and it is found in body secretions
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IGD
Unclear function and it is found on the surface of C-cells and in the serum
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IGE
binds to mast cells and basophilic, mediating immediate hypersensitivity reactions or allergic reactions. IGE stimulates the release of mast cell granules which contain histamine and heparin
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Complement System
Activated by IGG or IGM in the classic pathway and activated by molecules on the surface of microbes (especially endotoxin) in the alternative pathway
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Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 cause
AIDS, but HIV-1 is found worldwide, whereas HIV-2 is found primarily in West Africa
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HIV preferentially infects and kills
Helper T Lymphocytes (CD4)
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HIV B infects
mononuclear cells and appears to be passed readily during anal sex
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HIV E
infects female genital tract cells and appears to be passed readily during vaginal sex
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Chemokine receptors, such as CXCR4 and CCR5 proteins, are required
for the entry of HIV into CD4-positive cells
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Anitgens of HIV - Group-Specific Antigen
p24 is located in the core and is not known to vary
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Mutations in the gene encoding CCR5 endow the individual with protection from
infection with HIV
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Although small amounts of HIV virus have been found in other fluids like saliva and tears
there is no evidence that they play a role in infection
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Blood Banks test for the presence of p24 antigen in an effort
to detect blood that contains HIV
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The Acute stage of HIV infection
usually begins 2-4 weeks after infection, a mononucleosis-like picture of fever, lethargy, sore throat, and generalized lymphadenopathy occurs.
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(HIV) The most frequent manifestations are
persistent fevers, fatigue, weight loss, and lymphadenopathy.
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The last stage of HIV infection is AIDS,
manifested by a decline in the number of CD4 cells to below 400/uL and an increase in the frequency and severity of opportunistic infections
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The presumptive diagnosis of HIV infection is made by the detection of antibodies by
ELISA.
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Western Blot analysis
is used to make the definitive diagnosis of HIV
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Lab test for SLE
Antibodies to double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA)- very specific, poor prognosis
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Drug-Induced Lupus caused by
Procainamide, quinidine, hydrazine, isoniazied, methyldopa, and chlorpromazine
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RA patients have positive
rheumatoid factors (anti-IgG antibody)
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Classic Presentation of RA
morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes and improving with use, symmetric joint involvement, systemic symptoms (fever, fatigue, pleuritis, pericarditis)
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Hypercalcemia
Serum calcium level is more than 10.2 mg/dL
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Cause of hypercalcemia in the in-patient and out-patient setting is
malignancy; primary hyperparathyroidism
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The Main immune respone to HIV infection
- Consists of cytotoxic CD8-Positive lymphocytes
- - These cells respond to the intial infection and control it for many years
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Hypernatremia(Serum)
Serum Sodium Level is more than 145 mEq/L
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Hyponatermia(Serum)
Serum Sodium Level is less than 136 mEq/L
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Hypekalemia(Serum)
Serum Potassium is more than 5.0 mEq/L
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Hyperkalemia
- -Peaked T Waves
- -Widening of the QRS complex
- -Flattening of the P wave
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Hypokalemia(Serum)
Serum potassium is less than 3.6 mEq/L
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Two Manifestations of AIDS
Pneumocystis Pneumonia and Kaposi's Sarcoma
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Hypocalcemia
- serum calcium level is less than 8.5 mg/dL causes: hypoparathyroidism, pseudoparathyroidism
- Normal serum pH: 7.36-7.44
- Normal serum [HCO3-]: 24 mEq/L
- Normal serum PCO2: 40 mm Hg
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Respiratory Acidosis
pH is less than 7.35 and PCO2 is greater than 45 mm Hg
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Hyperventilation
pH is greater than 7.45 and PCO2 is less than 35 mmHg
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Metabolic Acidosis
pH is less than 7.35 and HCO3 is less than 22 mEq/L; hyperkalemia
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Metabolic Alkalosis
slow, shallow respirations
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