final exam.txt

• Less movable of the two points
• Attaches to the more fixed part o the skeleton
• Color code = red

• More movable of the two points
• Color code = blue

Fleshy par between origin and insertion

toward the point of O

• O = proximal
• I = distal

Joint

• Fiber direction
• Location
• Size
• Number or origins
• Shape
• O&I
• Action

• Sphincter muscle of the eyelid; follows a circular path around orbit
• Origin: Medial wall of orbit (frontal and maxillary bones)
• Insertion: eyelid tissue
• Actions: closes eye
• Nerve: facial nerve (CN VII)7

• Mostly circular muscle of lips and around the mouth
• Origin: largely from other facial muscles surrounding the mouth
• Insertion: muscles and skin at angles of mouth; encircles mouth
• Actions: compression, contraction and protrusion of lips
• Nerve: facial nerve (CN VII)

• Small, strap like muscle running diagonally from the cheek to the angle of the mouth
• Origin: zygomatic bone
• Insertion: skin and muscles at angels of mouth and upper lip
• Actions: draws angles of mouth backward and upward (smile)
• Nerve: facial nerve (CN VII)7

• Strap-like muscles on the anterolateral aspect of neck
• Origin: manubrium of the sternum and medial part of the clavicle
• Insertion: mastoid process of temporal bone
• Actions: bilateral contraction: flex head. Unilateral contraction: rotates face toward side opposite of contracting muscles
• Nerve: accessory nerve (CN XI (11)), C2, and C3

• Superficial muscle of the lateral abdominal wall; fivers run obliquely downward and medially
• Origin: anterior surface of lower 8 ribs
• Insertion: linea alba, pubic crest and iliac crest
• Actions: bilateral contraction: helps flex vertebral column and compresses abdomen; acts in forced exhalation
• Unilateral contractions: aid in trunk rotation and lateral flexion
• Nerve: intercostals nerves (T7-T12)

• Superficial strap-like muscle of the medial abdominal wall; broken into three segments by tendinous intersections
• Origin: pubic crest and symphasis
• Insertion: xihoid process and costal cartilage of ribs 5-7
• Actions: flexes vertebral column and compressed abdomen; acts in forced exhalation
• Nerve: intercostals nerves (T7-T12)

• Fan-shaped muscle with a serrated anterior border; located deep to pectorals major anteriorly and deep to the scapula posteriorly
• Origin: outer surface of ribs (1-8)
• Insertion: anterior surface of vertebral border of scapula
• Actions: draws the scapula forward and laterally; acts strongly in pushing
• Nerve: long thoracic nerve

• Trapezoid-shaped muscle of the superficial back
• Origin: occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, spinous process of C7-C12
• Insertion: clavicle acromion and spine of scapula
• Actions: upper portion: elevates scapulas
• Middle potion � adducts scapula
• Lower portion- depresses scapula
• Nerve: accessory nerve (CN XI) c3 and c4

• Flat, triangular shaped muscle of the lower back; upper portion is deep to trapizus
• Origin: iliac crest, lumbodorsal fascia, spinous process of T7-T12, ribs 9-12
• Insertion: floor of Intertubercular groove of humerus
• Actions: extends, adducts and medially rotates humerus
• Nerve: thoracodorsal nerve

• Large, fan, shaped muscle of the anterior chest
• Origin: clavicle, sternum and costal cartilages of upper 6 ribs
• Insertion: lateral lip of Intertubercular grove
• Actions: flexes, addicts and medially rotates humerus
• Nerve: medial and lateral pectoral nerves

• Thick triangular muscle that caps the shoulder
• Origin: clavicle, acromion and spine of scapula
• Insertion: deltoid tuberosity of humerus
• Actions: as a whole primarily acts in arm abduction
• Anterior fibers � flex humerus
• Middle fibers � abduct humerus
• Posterior fibers � extend humerus
• Nerve: axillary nerve

• Two-headed muscle; belly of muscle is located in the anterior compartment of the brachium
• Origin: short head � coracoids process of scapula
• Long head- supraglenoid tubercle of scapula
• Insertion: radial tuberosity of radius
• Actions: flexes and supinates forearm
• Nerve: musculocutaneous nerve

• Three headed muscle; belly is located in the posterior compartment of the brachium
• Origin: long head � infraglenoid tuberacle
• Lateral head � posterior and lateral surfaces of humerus
• Medial head � posterior surface of humerus
• Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna
• Actions: extends forearm
• Nerve: radial nerve

• Superficial muscle of the posterior antebrachium
• Origin: lateral epicondyle of humerus
• Insertion: distal phalanges of fingers 2-5 (by 4 tendons)
• Actions: extends wrist and fingers
• Nerve: radial nerve

• Two headed muscle of the anterior compartment of the antebrachium; visible distally but is deep to a serious of muscles proximally
• Origin: medial epicondle of humerus, coronoid process of ulna, shaft of radius
• Insertion: middle phalanges of finders 2-5 (by four tendons)
• Actions: flexes write and middle phalanges of fingers 2-5
• Nerve: median nerve

• Large, superficial muscle of the Gluteal region; forms most of the buttock
• Origin: iliac crest, sacrum and coccyx
• Insertion: Gluteal tuberosity of femur and iliotibial tract
• Actions: extends and laterally rotates thigh
• Nerve: inferior Gluteal nerve

• Long-strap like muscle of the anterior thigh; crosses the thigh obliquely from the hip to the medial knee
• Origin: anterior superior iliac spine
• Insertion: medial aspect of proximal tibia (by aponeurosis)
• Actions: flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh; flexes leg
• Nerve: femoral nerve

• Large muscle mass located in the anterior thigh; formed by four separate muscles that have a common insertion; include rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius and vastus medialis
• General origin: anterior inferior iliac spine and femur
• Insertion: patella and tibial tuberosity vie patellar ligament
• Actions: all four extends leg; rectus femoris also flexes thigh
• Nerve: femoral nerve

• Large muscles mass located in the posterior thigh; formed by three separate muscle that have a common origin; included semimembranouss, semitendinous and biceps femoris
• General origin: Ischial tuberosity (all3 3) linea aspera (BF)
• Insertion:
• Semimembranousus � medial condyle of tibia
• Smeitendinosus � proximal medial surface of tibia
• Biceps femoris � lateral condyle of tibia and head of fibula
• Actions: extend thigh and flex knee
• Nerve: tibial nerve

• Two-headed, superficial muscle of the posterior leg; helps form your calf
• Origin: lateral and medial condyles of femur (by two heads)
• Insertion: calcaeus via the Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
• Actions: plantarflex foot and flex leg
• Nerve: tibial nerve

• Broad, flat muscle located deep to gastronmius in the posterior compartment of the leg; looks like a filet of fish
• Origin: proximal portions of the tibia, fibula and interosseous membrane
• Insertion: Calcanealus via the Calcaneal (achillies) tendon
• Actions: plantar flex foot
• Nerve: tibial nerve

• Superficial muscle of the anterior left. Runs along the lateral aspect of the tibias anterior margin
• Origin: lateral condyle, upper 2/3 of tibia and interosseus membrane
• Insertion: first metatarsal and medial (first_ cuneiform
• Actions: dorsiflexes (extends) and inverts foot
• Nerve: deep Peroneal (fibular nerve

• Muscle mass in the lateral compartment of the leg: includes peroneus longus and perneus brevis
• General origin: fibula and lateral condyle of tibia
• Insertion: peroneus brevis � 5th metatarsal
• Peroneus longus � 1st metatarsal and first (media) cunieiform
• Actions: plantarflex and everts foot
• Nerve: superficial Peroneal (fibular nerve
• Masseter
• Muscle that laterally covers the Mandibular ramus
• Origin:
• zygomatic arch
• Insertion: angle and ramus of mandible
• Actions: elevates mandible; closes jaw
• Nerve: trigeminal nerve (CN V)5

• Muscles of the temporal region
• Origin: temporal fossa
• Insertion: coronoid process of mandible
• Actions: elevates and retracts mandible; closes jaw
• Nerve: trigeminal nerve (CN V)

• Eleven pairs of muscles occurring between the ribs; superficial layer with fibers running obliquely in a downward anterior manner
• Origin: inferior border of rib above
• Insertion: superior border of rib below
• Actions: draws adjacent ribs together to elevate dib cage during inspiration; acts in normal quiet breathing
• Nerve: intercostals nerves

• Broad, flat muscles that forms the floor of the thoracic cavity; is pierced by the esophagus, aorta, and inferior vena cava
• Origin: inferior, internal surface of rib cage, ziphoid process, costal cartilage, of last 6 ribs and lumbar vertebrae
• Insertion: central tendon
• Actions: flattens when contracting therefore increases vertical dimension of thorax; acts in normal quite breathing
• Nerve: phrenic nerve

• Three columns of muscles contributing to the deep back muscles
• Includes: iliocostalis (lattermost), longisssimus (intermediate), and spinalis (medialmost)
• General location: iliac crest, vertebral column (parts of lumbar, thoracic, and cervical vertebrae), ribs and skull (temporal and occipital bones)
• Actions: extends and laterally bends the vertebral column
• Nerve: dorsal rami of spinal nerves

• General location: base of thumb;
• Involves carpals, 1st metacarpal and proximal phalanx of thumb
• General actions: opposes , abducts, and flexes the thumb
• Actions: median nerve

• General location: base of little finger;
• Involves carpals, 5th metacarpal and proximal phalanx f little finger
• General actions: draws little finger toward the thumb; flexes and abducts little finger
• Nerve: Ulnar nerve

• Large fleshy muscle in the medial compartment of the thigh
• Origin: ischial and pubic rami and ischial tuberosity
• Insertion: linea aspera and adductor tubercle of femur
• Actions: adducts thigh
• Nerve: obturator and sciatic nerves

• Triangular-shaped muscle; deep to gluteus maximums; the sciatic nerves passes below the inferior border of piriformis
• Origin: anterior sacrum (opposite greater sciatic notch)
• Insertion: upper border of greater trochanter
• Actions: rotates thigh laterally and abducts thigh
• Nerve: nerve to piriformis

Sense change

Cause a response to the change

Brain and the spinal cord

Receptors to the CNS then Effectors// they are processes to the Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

The direction of the impulse

• Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Receptors ---? CNS

• Motor (efferent) neurons
• CNS -? effectors(all body parts) ?organ that response to a motor impulse (muscle tissue cell or gland)

somatic nervous system and visceral nervous system

• is sensory neurons from cutaneous and special sense receptors in the
• Environment; muscle and limb position = type of info
• Head, body wall and extremities
• Motor neurons = CNS ?skeletal muscles �voluntary�

• Sensory neurons = Viscera ? CNS �type of info = environment, pain, cramps.
• Motor neurons CNS ? visceral effectors = smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glands

• Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
• Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

Controls the function of the gut; separate from the ANS?

• Neuron
• Neuroglial cells

• Support neurons in both the CNS and PNS
• Function:
• Sustain neurons metabolically
• Support neurons physically
• Protection
• Help regulate into levels in interstitial spaces (space between cells)

• Astrocyte
• Oligodendrocyte
• Micoglial
• Ependyma

Supports neurons (physically and metabolically)

• Protoplasmic astrocyte � gray matter
• Fibrous astrocyte (fewer processes) - white matter

• Provide support neurons physically
• Surround nerve cell bodies in the CNS
• Myelinate axon in CNS

• Brain macrophages
• Phagocytosis (microbes and debris)
• Migrate to injury sites

• Lines cavities in the CNS
• Assist in the circulation of cerebral spinal fluid

• Schwann cell (neurolemma)
• Satellite cells

• Protection
• Ensheath axon

Supports NCB that occurs without the CNS (ganglion)

A basic functional unit of nervous tissue

Nerve cell body (soma, perikaryon), dendrites and axon.

Where the slender process extends

Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

An elaborate type of rough endoplasmic reticulum

Just distally to the axon is a slightly enlarged cell body

Receptive regions (they bear receptors for neurotransmitters released by to there neurons)

Generate and conduct nerve impulses

Each neuron has only one axon by axons may have the occasional branches along their length. Tthey extend from the axon at more or less right angles

Surround and form myelin sheaths around the larger nerve fibers in the PNS

A whitish fatty protein lipoid segmented that insulates fibers and increases the speed of transmission of nerve impulses

Portion of the Schwann cells which includes the exposed part of its plasma membrane

Gaps in the sheath at regulate intervals along the myelinated axon

Knoblike distal endings of the terminal branches are called axon terminals

By the number of neurons

Have a single short process that emerges from the cell body and divides like a T into proximal and distal branches

• Retina: rods and cones
• Embryo

Two process extend from the cell body; one is a fused dendrite, the other is an axon

Retina; Inner ear; Olfactory; Epithelium

Many processes extend from the cell body; all are dendrites except a single azon

Most common type in the CNS

CNS

CNS

• Within the CNS
• Connects with other neurons

Motor in the front with the effectors

Both sensory and or motor neurons

• General somatic afferent fiber (GSA)
• � Sensations from the body � CNS
• � Extroceptive
• o Skin and mucosa (external stimuli)
• o Pain, temperature, touch, pressure
• � Proprioceptive
• o Muscles, tendons, and joint capsules
• o Joint position, tension of tendons, and tension of muscle fibers
• General visceral afferent fibers (GVA)
• � Sensations from mucosa, glands, and BV to CNS

Motor impulses � CNS ? skeletal muscles

• Autonomic nerve fibers
• Motor impulses
• CNS ?smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands

• Difference in charge on either side of the cell membrane
• Due to unequal concentrations of ions (Na+ and K+) inside and outside the cell
• At rest it is more negative inside the cell an more positive outside the cell

• Na+ and K+ gradients and Na+ and K+ leak channels involved
• More Na+ outside the cell then inside the cell
• More K+ inside then outside

Requires energy; pumps sodium out of the cell and K+ into the cell (compensates for leaks)

• More negative inside
• More positive outside

• Polarize membrane has a difference in charge on either differ of its membrane
• Resting membrane potential
• This resting membrane potential is actively maintained

• Ability of neurons to respond to stimuli
• Response involves the generation of a nerve impulse
• Neuron reverses and re-establishes the resting membrane potential = this generates an action potential

Time when the neuron cannot generate another action potential

• Absolute refractory period
• Relative refractory period

Time when a second action potential CANNOT be initiates = period of Na+ permeability changes

Time when a second action potential can be generated by only with a very strong stimulus = period of K+ permeability changes

• Along the entire neuron
• At a constant and maximum strength

Stimulus that is strong enough to initiate an impulse

• Stimulus that is weaker then threshold
• A series if subthreshold stimuli within correct frequency may be initiate an impulse

Junction between two neurons

Summation due to an accumulation of neurotransmitters from a single presynaptic end bulb firing two or more times

Presynaptic neuron meets with post synaptic neuron

generates an impulse in postsynaptic neuron

summations due to the accumulation of neurotransmitters from several presynaptic end bulbs

Postsynaptic neuron

Myelinated nerve fibers insulate the nerve fibers therefore inhibits a continuous flow of ions

• Increase the velocity of conduction
• Energy efficient

Constant speed and maximal strength

• Temperature � faster is warmer
• Fiber diameter � faster if larger
• Presence of myelin - faster if myelinated

• Myelinated large fibers
• Salutatory conduction � jumps � like a rabbit - short refractory period
• Fast conduction speed

• Large sensory neurons relating information on (GSA) � touch, pressure, joint position, temperature
• Motor neurons ? skeletal muscles (GSE) motor

• Medium sized, myelinated fivers
• Medium rate of conduction speed
• Salutatory conduction; medium refractory period

• Sensory neurons from skin & viscera (GVA)
• Visceral motor neurons that leave the CNS and end in autonomic ganglia (GVE)

• Smallest diameter
• Slow conduction speed
• Continuous conduction; long refractory period

• Sensory neurons from skin and viscera (GVA)
• Neurons that conduct pain (GSA)
• Visceral motor neurons from autonomic ganglia to visceral effectors (GVE)

• Neuromuscular junction neuron ? muscle cell
• Neuroglandular Junction neuron ? gland

• Binds reversible with specific receptors to cause an effect
• One way impulse conduction

• Less negative�.�more positive�
• �lowers the potential�

• Opens Na+ channels � more Na+ into the cell
• Moves the potential closer to threshold
• Increases possibility of a causing an A.P.

• Process whereby a nerve membrane is partially depolarized by a sub threshold stimulus
• A second subsequent sub threshold stimulus can then further depolarize the membrane to reach the threshold
• Spatial and temporal summation

• Hyperpolarizes the membrane
• Become �more negative�

• K+ moves out of the cell
• Cl- moves into the cell
• Membrane becomes less permeable to Na+

More difficult to generate an action potential � threshold so much further away

Types of presynaptic neurons

Sum

No AP; facilitation is possible

AP is generated

No AP, makes it less likely to occur

resting membrane potential

• Acetylcholine
• Norepinephrine
• Dopamine
• Serotonin
• GABA
• Endorphins

• Released at some neurolandular junctions, some neuromuscular junction and some synapses
• �cholinergic� = nerve fibers that release Ach
• Binds to postsynaptic receptors
• EPSP � many effectors
• IPSP � cardiac muscle
• Inactivated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
• -prevents a continuous transmission

• Released at some neuroglandular junctions and some synapses
• �adrenergic� = nerve fibers that release NE
• Varied effects � more in ANS
• Inactivated by catechol � o � methyltransferase (comt)
• Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
• Can also be recycled back into the synaptic vesicles

• Biogenic amine
• Effects varied
• If decreased amount = Parkinson�s
• If increased amount � schizophrenia

• Biogenic Amine;
• Primarily inhibitory role in sleep & mood

• Amino acid
• Primarily inhibitory

• Peptide (neuropeptide)
• Primarily inhibitory
• Natural opiate

White matter

Gray matter

Nerve

Ganglion (ganglia)

Nucleus (ganglion)

Tract

Ascending tract

Descending tract

Horns

Columns

Endoneurium

Perineurium

Epineurium

Vertebral canal

31 each giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves

There are 8 cervical spinal nerves

• Upper extremity
• Spinal cord & vertebra levels C3-T1

• Lower extremity
• Spinal cord levels t12-S
• Vertebra levels T9-T12

Tapered, conical end

• There are 5 pairs of sacral spinal nerves
• There is one pair of Coccygeal spinal nerves

• Extension of the pia matter
• Non-neural
• Anchors the spinal cord inferiorly
• Attaches to posterior surface of the coccyx

White adipose tissue, CT and venous plexus

• Dense, fibrous meninx
• Continuously with the cranial dura mater
• Foramen magnum to S2 (close ended sac)
• Fuses with the filum terminale

Interstitial fluid

• Spider web of CT fibers
• Continuous with the arachnoid mater of the brain
• Foramen magnum to S2 (fuses with filum terminale)

Cerebrospinal fluid

• Delicate CT layer with BV
• Continuous with pia mater around the Medulla oblongata
• Extends to coccyx from conus medullaris as the filum terminal

Extension of the pia mater; laterally anchors the spinal cord; occurs between the dorsal and ventral roots

Continuation of the subarachnoid space that extends from the conus medullaris to the second sacral vertebral level

Somatic motor

Sensory

Anterior median fissure

Posterior median Sulcus

• Conducts impulses
• Integrates reflexes

Conduction pathway involving two or more neurons; has 5 components

• Receptor
• Sensory neuron
• Center
• Motor neuron
• Effectors

Skin & a needle

• It carries information to an inter neuron in the center
• A motor neuron (efferent ) then take the impulse to an effectors?
• What would be an effecter? � skeletal muscle

The body�s fast response to an environmental change

• Skeletal muscle contraction
• Heart rate
• Respiration
• Digestion
• Urination
• Defecation

• Spinal reflex
• Somatic reflex
• Visceral reflex

Involves the spinal cord as the center

Influences contraction of skeletal muscles

Influences contraction of smooth, cardiac and secretary patterns of glands

Higher reflexes ? brain

Plexus

Sternocleidomastodieus

Ventral rami of spinal nerves C1-C4 (C5)

Skin over the back of the head, ear region, anterior neck, and shoulder region

Muscles of the neck (trapezius (C3, C4) and sternocleidomastoideus(C2, C3)) and the diaphragm (phrenic nerve) + accessory nerve in both cases

Neck and axilla

Ventral rami of the spinal nerves C5-T1

Skin over the shoulder region and all parts of the upper extremity

Muscles of the shoulder and upper extremity

Lumbar plexus + sacral plexus

Within the psoas major

Ventral rami of spinal nerves

Skin over lower abdomen, buttock, external genitalia, many thigh regions, medial leg and food

Muscles of the lower abdomen (illiohypogastric & ilioinguinal nerves) as well as the medial thigh (oburator nerve (adductor magnus (part))) and anterior thigh (femoral nerve (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis; satorius (quadriceps femoris))) regions

Along the posterolateral wall of the pelvis (anterior to the sacrum)

Ventral rami of spinal nerves

• L4-L5 contribution that join the sacral plexus
• Cutaneous branch of sacral plexus
• Skin over Gluteal region, external genitalia, and lower extremity

Muscles of the lower extremity

Tibial nerve + common Peroneal nerve (common fibular nerve) wrapped in a common CT sheath.

• The pelvis b passing though the greater sciatic notch (foramen) inferior to piriformis. It passes deep to gluteus maximus midway between the ischial tuberosity and the greater trochanter.
• It typically divides into the tibial and common Peroneal nerves at mid-thigh.

• T2-T11
• Distributed directly to the structures in that area = intercostals muscles + abdominal muscle

Nerves that innervate a skeletal muscle acting on a joint will also innervate the joint itself and the skin over that joint

The skin over the entire body is innervated by cutaneous branches of the spinal lnerve.ss the area of skin supplied b the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve = dermatome. Overlap of dermatomes can be considerable

Visceral unction

Cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle. Glands

Autonomic nerve fibers

• Cerebral cortex and limbic (subconscious level)
• Hypothalamus (main integration center of ANS ) � the boss
• Brain stem and spinal cord (specific visceral reflexes)

• Sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathetic nervous system

• Thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord
• Thoracolumbar division

• Brainstem, nuclei of CN 3, 7, 9, 10.
• Craniosacral division

• Innervated by both divisions
• Divisions have antagonistic effects

Increased rate of contraction and strength of contraction

Decreased rate and strength of contraction

• Perganglionic neuron (GVE) - myelinated
• Post ganglion neuron (GVE) � unmyelinated

Preganglionic neuron starts in CNS � goes to autonomic ganglion � meets with a post ganglionic neuron which then goes to the visceral effecter

Parasympathetic ganglion has a terminal ganglion and is located more peripherally in the body (except he first four in the head)

Near or within the walls of the visceral effectors

Post ganglionic fibers except in the head

• Sympathetic chain ganglia
• Collateral ganglia

• Paravertebral ganglia; vertebral chain ganglia; lateral ganglia
• Vertical row of ganglia on either side of the vertebral ganglia

• Pervertabral ganglia
• Lies anterior to the vertebral column
• Close o large abdominal arteries

Some distance away from the visceral effectors

Long postganglionic fibers

Lateral gray horn of the thoracic and lumbar segments

Ventral root into the trunk of the spinal nerve

The spinal nerve trunk via the white ramus communicans

Nearest sympathetic chain ganglion on the same side

• � Preganglionic neuron can immediately synapse with the post ganglionic neuron in the sympathetic chain ganglion
• o Post ganglionic neuron exits the sympathetic trunk via gay ramus communicans at entry level
• � Preganglionic neuron ascends or descends thought the sympathetic trunk
• o Synapse in a sympathetic chain ganglion at a level from entry point
• o Post ganglionic neuron exits the sympathetic trunk via gray ramus communicans (at a level other then entry point0
• � Preganglionic neuron passes thought the sympathetic trunk WITHOUT synapsing in a sympathetic chain ganglion
• o Synapse with a postganglionic sympathetic neuron in a collateral ganglion
• o Splanchnic nerves are the preganglionic sympathetic fibers the extend beyond the sympathetic trunk
• Postganglionic neuron � originated in the?
• Sympathetic ganglion (either chain or collateral)

• Unmyelinated fibers that travel to their visceral effectors
• Gray ramus communicans
• Connects he sympathetic chain ganglion of the sympathetic trunk with the ventral ramus of the spinal cord

• Paired chains of ganglia; anterolateral to the vertebral column
• Consists of a serious of sympathetic chain ganglion that are segmented arranged

3

11

4

4

1

23

Thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord

• Nuclei of cranial nerves
• Brain stem
• Lateral gray horns of sacral spinal cord segments

• Oculomotor nerve CN3
• Facial nerveCN7
• Glossopharyngeal nerveCN9
• Vagus nerve CN10

• Midbrain
• Smooth muscle in eyes; pupils contact and lens bulges

• Pons
• Nasal glands, lacrimal glands, submandibular glands, and sublingual gland

• Medulla oblongata
• Parotid gland

• Medulla oblongata
• Most parasympathetic fibers
• Structure in the neck and almost every organ in the thoracic and abdominal cavities;
• Eg. Heart, lungs, bronchi, esophagus stomach, small intestine, proximal large intestine�

• Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata � location of CN origin
• Midbrain = CN3
• Pons = CN 7
• Medulla oblongata = CN 9 & 10

Rest of large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and reproductive organs

Terminal ganglion

• Terminal ganglion
• Usually short, unmyelinated fibers passes directly to the visceral effecter

• � All preganglionic fibers release ACh
• o Both parasympathetic and sympathetic
• � All parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release ACh
• � Very few sympathetic postganglionic fibers release ACh
• o Sweat glands (Eccrine)
• o Blood vessels to skeletal muscles (smooth muscles in the wall of BV)
• Characteristics of ACh
• � Release from cholinergic fibers
• � Inactivated by acetylchoinesterase (A chase)
• o Enzyme in synaptic cleft and post synaptic membrane
• � Short lived, local effects

• Muscarinic receptor � muscarine
• Nicotinic receptor � nicotine

• All effectors stimulated by parasympathetic postganglionic fibers and by cholinergic sympathetic post ganglionic fibers
• Inhibitory or excitatory effects � depends on subclass of receptor

• Excitatory effect
• All ganglionic neurons (both divide, synapse between preganglionic and post ganglionic neurons)
• Chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla
• Skeletal muscle cells at neuromuscular junction (somatic NS , not ANS)

Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers release NE

• � Released from adrenergic fibers
• � Slow degeneration of NE
• o Can enter blood stream
• o More prolonged and also more widespread effects then ACh
• Removal of NE follows two patterns
• 1. Reuptake into the adrenergic nerve endings � most (50-89%)
• a. Active transport
• 2. Inactivated by enzymes
• a. Caecholamine-o-methyltransferase (COMT)
• b. Monoamine oxidase (MAO)
• NE can activate two main types of receptors
• Alpha and beta receptors
• 1. A1, A2, B1, B2, B3 � subtypes based on their responses and by binding with specific drugs
• 2. General result of receptor activation
• a. Excitatory effects if activated = a1, b1.
• b. Inhibitory effects if activate = a2, b2
• c. B3 only on brown adiposities - stimulates thermogenesis

• 1. Frontal
• 2. Parietals
• 3. Temporal
• 4. Occipital
• 5. Sphenoid
• 6. Ethmoid

• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Pia mater

• � Galea aponeurotica (Loose CT)
• � Periosteum
• � Periosteal layer
• � Dura mater
• � Arachnoid mater
• � Subarachnoid space = CSF here
• � Meningeal layer and arachnoid villi
• � Pia mater
• Extensions of the cranial dura:
• Faulx cerebri
• Tentorium cerebelli
• Faulx cerebelli

• Dural venous sinus (superior Sagittal sinus)
• Dural venous sinus (straight sinus)

Inferior portion of the brain superior to the foramen magnum continuous inferiorly with the spinal cord

Permits communication between spinal cord and various brain regions

Hear rate and force of contraction

Breathing rhythm

Diameter of blood vessels (change BP)

• Swallowing
• Vomiting
• Coughing
• Sneezing
• Hiccupping

Equilibrium/maintenance of posture

• 1. Glossopharynglear nerve 9
• 2. Vagus nerve 10
• 3. Accessory nerve 11
• 4. Hypoglossal nerve 12

CN 8

4th

• Bulge on anterior surface of the brain stem
• Pons �bridge� � Associated structures � many white fibers connecting other parts of the brain
• Pathway between spinal cored and higher brain areas
• Other connect ponds ? cerebellium

• Breathing
• Limit inspiration; facilitates expiration

• Breathing
• Prolong inspiration
• Limits expiration

• 1. Trigeminal nerve 5
• 2. Abductens nerve 6
• 3. Facial nerve 7
• Pons �bridge� � Associated structures � Vestiulococlear nerve 8
• Pons �bridge� � Associated structures �4th ventricle

• Wedge shaped portion of brain stem
• Between pons and diencephalon

• Connects tracts of upper parts of the brain with lower parts of the brain and spinal cord
• E.g. larger motor tracts descending to the spinal cord

• � Reflex center for movement of the eyeball and head to visual stimuli
• � Reflex center for movements of the head and trunk in response to auditory stimuli

• 1. Oculomotor nerve 3
• 2. Trochlear nerve
• Midbrain - Associated structures � cerebral aqueduct

• Above the midbrain
• Embedded in the cerebral hemisphere
• Lateral walls of the third ventricle
• 2 oval masses joined by the intermediate mass

Hearing, vision, taste and general sensations

• Voluntary motor actions
• Diencephalon � thalamus � associated structures - third ventricle
• Diencephalon � thalamus � associated structures - nucleus associated with memory and certain emotions

• Floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle
• Below the thalamus
• Partially protected by the sells turcica

• 1. Paraventricular nucleus and suporaoptic nucleus
• a. Hormone synthesis
• i. Oxytosin (PVN); antidiuretic hormone (SDN)
• 2. Releasing and inhibiting hormones

• 1. Feeding center
• 2. Satiety center
• 3. Thirst center
• 4. Thermoregulatory center
• 5. Pace maker of body rhythms

• Controls and integrate the ans
• � Motor : smooth muscle, cardiac muscles. Glands
• � Sensory: from viscera
• Diencephalon � hypothalamus � associated structures � maintains sleep patterns

• Center for emotional responses
• At heard of limbic system
• Acts thought the ANS to start the physical expression of emotions
• Diencephalon � hypothalamus � associated structures � third ventricle

• Posterior to MO and pons
• Inferior to occipital lobe of cerebrum
• Separated from cerebrum by transverse fissure and tentorium cerebella

• � Connected in the midline by the vermis
• � Each hemisphere has smaller units called lobes
• o Anterior lobe & posterior lobe = subconscious movements of skeletal muscles
• o Flocculonodular lobe � sense of equilibrium

Extension of the cranial dura mater

• � Cortex � superficial layer of gray matter thought into olds called folia
• o thick parallel ridges of gray mater
• � White matter tracts � arbor vitae
• o Deep to cerebella cortex
• � Cerebella nuclei � masses of gray mater deep within the arbor vitae

• Fiber tracts permit communication between cerebellum and brain stem
• Cerebellum � Associated structures � fourth ventricle

• Subconscious movements of skeletal muscles
• � Coordinates activity
• � Integrate movements
• � Coordinates reflexes that maintain posture and balance

• Supported on the brain stem
• Surrounds the diencephalon

• � Cortex � superficial layer of gray matter
• � Cerebral white matter � fiber tracts
• � Cerebral nuclei or basal ganglia
• o Paired masses of gray matter
• o Deep w/I cerebral white matter

• � Gyri � upfolds of he tissue
• � Fissures � deep downfolds into the tissue
• � Sulci � shallow downfolds into the tissue

• Falx cerebri � extension of the cranial dura mater
• Occupies the longitude fissure

Bundles of transverse white fibers

• � Central Sulcus
• o Frontal lobe
• o Parietal lobe
• � Lateral Sulcus
• o Frontal lobe, parietal lobe
• o Temporal lobe
• � Patietooccipital Sulcus
• o Parietal lobe
• o Occipital lobe

• 1. Insula
• a. Another lobe of cerebrum
• b. Deep within the cerebrum; under the parietal, frontal and temporal loves
• 2. Precental gyrus
• a. Immediately anterior to the central Sulcus
• b. Primary motor cortex
• 3. Postcentral gyrus
• a. Immediately posterior to the central Sulcus
• b. Primary somatosensory cortex
• 4. Cerebral ganglia or basal ganglia (basal nuclei)
• a. Deep within the substance of the cerebrum
• b. Paired masses of gray matter in each hemisphere
• i. Interconnect with each other and connect with the cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus
• ii. Various nuclei
• 1. General function to control subconscious movements of skeletal muscles and muscle tone
• 5. Transverse fissure
• a. Separates cerebrum from the cerebellum
• b. Tentori cerebella
• i. Occupies the transverse fissure
• 6. Lateral ventricles

• 1. Olfactory nerve CN1
• 2. Optic Nerve CN2

• Group of structures that are located on the medial aspect of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon
• Central roles in basic survival behaviors
• Involved in the emotion interpretation of sensory input and the expression of emotion

• Major sensory, motor, and association areas/cortex
• 1. Association areas � emotion and intellectual processes

Cavities in the bain that communicated with other ventricles, central canal and subarachnoid space.

Within each cerebral hemisphere

Foramen of monro

In the diencephalon

Boarded by the pons and MO Anteriorly and by the cerebellum posteriorly

Passes thought the mid brain

To the sub arachnoid space and central canal

To the sub arachonid space

• 1. Circulates thought the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord; also circulates through the ventricles of the brain and central canal of spinal cord
• 2. Clear, colorless liquid
• a. Proteins, glucose, urea, salts, water and some lymphocytes
• 3. Functions:
• a. Protects and supports CNS
• b. Removes neuronal wastes
• c. Helps spread neuroactive substances
• d. Maintains a constant environment
• 4. Formed primarily by filtration and secretion
• a. Involves the choroid plexus
• i. In the ventricles
• ii. Association of a capillary and ependyma
• 5. Re-absorption of fluid
• a. By arachonid villi
• Rate of re-absorption = rate of formation
• Hydrocephalus if blocked drainage
• 6. Circulation of CSF
• Right lateral ventricle choroid plexus + left lateral ventricle choroid plexus
• Interventricular foramen
• Third ventricle choroid plexus
• Cerebral aqueduct
• 4th ventricle choroid plexus ( to lateral aperture to subarachnoid space also)
• Median apeture
• Central canal and subarachnoid space
• Arachnoid villi
• Dural venous sinuses
• There is a continuous circulation of CSF in and around the CNS

Interconnecting network of arteries that form a circle around the infunfibulum

• Prevents an interrupted blood flow
• Most intracranial aneurisms occur in or near the circle of Willis
• Strokes of cerebrobasulor accident (CVA)
• Sudden hemorrhage into the brain
• Sudden stoppage of blood to part o the brain
• Infarction = death of nervous tissue

• � Sensory nerve
• � Olfactory mucosa to the cerebrum
• � Smell
• � Olfactory foramina on cribriform plate (ethmoid)

• � Sensory nerve
• � Retina to the cerebrum
• � Vision
• � Optic foramen (sphenoid)

• � Motor nerve (primarily motor nerve)
• � Carries parasympathetic fibers
• � Midbrain to orbit
• � Certain eye muscles and other parts of the eye
• o Movement of the eyelid, and eyeball, accommodation of the lenses, constricts pupil (ANS) (and some sensory fibers from the muscles it innervates)
• � Superior orbital fissure (sphenoid)

• � Motor nerve (primarily motor nerve)
• � Midbrain to orbit
• � Movement of eyeball (and some sensory fibers from the muscles it innervates)
• � Superior orbital fissure (sphenoid)

• � Mixed nerves (sensory and motor)
• � Ponds ??orbit, maxillary and Mandibular regions
• � Muscles of mastication, cutaneous interaction of the face�
• � Superior orbital fissure and foramina of the greater wing (sphenoid)

• � Motor nerve (primarily motor nerve)
• � Pons to orbit
• � Movement of eyeball (and some sensory fibers from the muscles it innervates)
• � Superior orbital fissure (sphenoid)

• � Mixed nerves
• � Carries parasympathetic fibers
• � Pons and cerebral cortex ? ?facial muscles, taste buds, various glands
• � Muscles of facial expression, secretion of tears, secretion of saliva (ANS), taster from anterior 2/3of tongue�.
• � Internal auditory meatus and stylomastoid foramen (temporal)

• � Sensory nerve (primarily sensory nerve; some motor fibers to cochlea)
• � Parts of inner ear to the brain stem
• � Hearing and balance; motor fibers help �fine-tune� the sensitivity of receptors in the cochlea
• � Internal auditory meatus (temporal)

• � Mixed nerve
• � Carrie parasympathetic fibers
• � Medulla oblongata ? ? pharynx, parotid gland, tongue
• � Swallowing, salivary secretion (ANS), taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue (also involved in the regulation of respirator rate and BP)
• � Jugular foramen (temporal)

• � Mixed nerve
• � Carries parasympathetic fibers
• � Medulla oblongata ? ?many organs/structures in the thorax and abdomen!
• o Lungs, heart, esophagus, large intestine, gallbladder, gastrointestinal tract organs, muscles of the pharynx�
• � Swallowing, visceral muscles movements (ANS), sensations from organs supplied�
• � Jugular foramen (temporal bone)

• � Motor nerve (primarily motor nerve)
• � Medulla oblongata, cervical spinal cord to muscle of the neck, pharynx, larynx and soft palate
• � Swallowing, head movements, (proproception from muscle it innervates)
• � Jugular foramen (temporal)

• �Motor nerve (primarily motor nerve)
• �Medulla oblongata to tongue
• �Movement of the tongue during speech and swallowing (proproception from muscle it innervates)