A and P: Exam 4

gland that secretes to the surface or outward through a duct.

• ductless gland that secrets hormones internally
• usually right into blood stream and circulation

cells that have a receptor for a particular hormone. When a hormone binds to the receptor of a target cell it promotes a response from the cell

• cannot pass directly through the membrane
• needs plasma membrane to have a receptor
• protien hormones

• can pass directly through the membrane to act on receptors that are inside of the cell (inracellular receptors)
• steriod and fatty acid hormones.

lipid hormones

• intracellular mediator
• produced with in a cell and binds to a receptors or enzymes and regulates their activities
• causes a cascade effect
• causes changes inside of the cell

• located in cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the cell
• intracellular receptor
• when a hormone binds to the receptor, the hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and stimulates synthesis of specific protiens that are resposible for producing the cells response

• bind to plasma-protiens.
• acts as a resivors for the hormones
• lipid soluble (steriod and thyroid) hormones

the length of the time for a hormone's blood level to be decreased by half

• its means that a hormone will result in a significant amount of receptors with hormones bond to them
• the presence or absence of a specific receptor molecules determine which cells will or will not respond to each hormone

• endocrine gland that regulates the secretory activity of the pituitary gland
• hormones: antidiuretic (ADH) and Oxytocin (OT)

• prevents large outputs of urine
• post pituitary

• causes contraction of smooth muscle cells fo the uterus and milk ejection
• posterior pituitary

increased growth hormone secretion

decreases growth of hormone secretion

increased thyriod stimulatory hormone secretion

increased adrencorticotropic hormone secretion

• increased secretion of luteinizing hormone
• follicle stiumlating hormone

decreased prolactin secretion

increased prolactin secretion

• regulates body functions
• tropic hormones
• hormones: growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone

• anterior pituitary gland
• increases growth in tissues
• increased amino acid uptake and protien synthesis
• increased breakdown of lipids and release of fatty acids from cells
• increased glycogen synthesis
• increased blood gluclose level
• increased somatomedin protien

• anterior pituitary gland
• increased thyroid hormone secretion

• anterior pituitary gland
• increased glucocoticoid hormone secretion

• anterior pituitary gland
• increased melanin production in melanocytes to make skin darker in color

• anterior pituitary gland
• ovulation and progesterone production in ovaries
• testosterone synthesis and support for sperm cell production in testies

• anterior pituitary gland
• follicle maturation and estrogen secretion in ovaries
• support for sperm cell production in the testies

milk production in the lactating women. increased response of follicle to LH and FSH

• major metabolic hormone of the body
• affects almost all cells in the body
• found on the anterior to the thyroid cartilage and superior to the trachea
• hormones: T3,T4, and calcitonin

• thyriod follicles increased metablic rate
• essential for normal process of growth and maturation

• parafollicular cells
• decreases rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts
• prevention of a large increase in blood calcium levels

• 2 pair of 2 oval masses on the posteior side of the thyriod gland
• important in controlling blood calcium

• increased rate of breakdone of bone by osteoclasts
• increase reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys
• increase absorption of calcium from the small intestine

• located inferior to the thyroid gland and posterior to the sternum development of the immune system
• only active in infants and adolescences

development and function of the immune system

superior to the kidney

• released from the adrenal medulla
• increased cardiac output
• increased blood flow to skeletal muscles
• increased blood flow to the heart
• vasoconstriction of blood vessels
• increased release of gluclose and fatty acids into the blood
• preperation of physical activity

• released from the adrenal cortex
• increased protien and fat breakdown
• increased gluclose production
• inhibition of immune response
• decreased inflammation

• released by the adrenal cortex
• increased sodium reabsorption
• increased potassium and hyrdogen excreation
• enhancedwater reabsorption

• released by the adrenal cortex
• females: development of secondary sex characteristics (pubic and axillary hair)

regulates sugar

• increases uptake and use of gluclose and amino acids
• released by the pancreas

• released by the pancreas
• increases the breakdown of glyclogen
• release of gluclose into the circulatory system

• release testosterone:
• aids in spermogenesis
• development of genitalia
• maintenance of functional development organs
• secondary sex characteristics
• sexual behavior

releases estrogens and progesterone

• uterine and mammary glands development and function
• maturation of genitalia
• secondary sex charactersitics
• sexual behavior and menstrual cycle

• uterine and mammary glands development and function
• maturation of genitalia
• secondary sex charactersitics
• and menstrual cycle

releases melatonin

• inhibition of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion, inhibiting reproduction
• peaks at night

graves disease: overactive thyriod

islets dont make enough insulin

receptors are faulty

• pancreas becauase it has two parts
• exocrine: acinar cells produce digestive pancreatic enzymes
• endocrine: regulates blood sugar

• in sella turcia
• shaped like a stalk and is connected to the hypothalamus
• postieror pituitary: releases hormones that are made in the hypothalamus and stored in the postieror pituitary gland
• anterior pituitary: hypothalamus releases hormones that infulence the anterior pituitary gland secretions

• formation and development of blood cells from myeloid tissue
• occurs in fetus
• red bone marrow

• stem cells
• differeniate and give rise to different cell lines

• red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• white blood cells (leukocytes)
• platelets (thrombocytes)

• the process in which new red blood cells are produced.
• 4 days for one cell to be produced

• 1. proerythroblast
• 2.erthroblast
• 3. reticulocyte (no nucleus)
• 4. mature red blood cells

• when oxygen in decreased the kidneys release erythropoietin into ciruclation
• this then stimulates red blood cell production in red bone marrow which will then increase blood oxygen levels

• 92% water
• 7% plasma protiens (albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen)
• 1% ions (neutreints and gases)

90% of plasma protiens are made in the liver

• 45% formed elements
• 55% plasma
• connective tissue

• plasma protien
• osmotic pressure of blood
• transport fatty acids and steriods to thyroid hormone
• transport molecules can bind to hormones

• plasma protiens
• antibodies = immunoglobins
• clotting factors
• transport protien can bind to hormones

• plasma protien
• clotting factor
• conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin

• transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• erythrocyte
• hemoglobin red in pigment
• rapid gas exchange

• involved in immunity
• leukocyte
• defend against pathogens remove toxins and waste
• connective and lymphiod tissue
• increase white infection, inflammation, alergies, and disease
• decrease diease (leukmia)

red blood cells

• white blood cells
• lack hemoglobin
• 5 kinds
• 1. neutrophils: bacterial
• 2. eosinophils: allergens
• 3. basophils: damaged tissue
• 4. monocytes: engulf
• 5.lympocytes: body defense

• white blood cell
• granulocyte
• most common type of wbc
• phagocytize foreign substances
• secrete lysozymes (enzymes) that destroy bacterias

• white blood cell
• granulocyte
• least common wbc
• releases histamine and other chemicals to promote inflammation
• releases heparin which prevents the formation of clots

• white blood cell
• granulocyte
• releases chemicals that reduce inflammation
• elevated in people who have allergies

• white blood cell
• agranulocyte
• smallest wbc
• originates in red bone marrow and goes to lymphatic tissue
• T and B cells

• white blood cell
• agranulocyte
• largest wbc
• become macrophage when they leave the blood and phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and cell fragments

• large cytoplasmic granules
• neutrophils
• basophils
• eosinophils

• need a microscope to see granules
• lymphocytes
• monocytes

the cell projects a cytoplasmic extension that attaches to the object then the rest of the cell's cytoplasm flows into the extension

• small cellular pieces from the breakdown of megakaryocytes in red blood marrow
• accumulation of platelets can seal up small break in blood vessels by sticking to the exposed collagen
• when cell is severely damage it results in blood clotting

made up of fibrin which traps blood cells, platelets and fluid.

• once clotting begins it continues until the end
• each step is triggered by the previous one

• stopping of bleeding
• 30-60 mins
• 1. vascular phase: spasm endothelial cells contract and become sticky
• 2. platelet phase: platelets adhere and form a plug
• 3. coagulation phase: blood clotting cascade of chain reactions

when blood clot eventually dissolves

• antigens on the surface of red blood cells
• catagorized into blood groups

• A antigens
• B antibodies

• B antigens
• A antibodies

• A and B antigens (Ab)
• universal acceptor becasue it has no antibodies

• has NO A or B antigens
• universal donor because it does not have antigens and there are not attack from the recipient's antibodies

• 1. outer epicardium: visceral pericardium outer most layer
• 2. myocardium: straighted cardiac muscle
• 3. endocardium: endothelialceells that line the chambers

• between the parietal and the visceral pericardium
• fill with paricardial (serous) fluid that decrease friction as the heart moves
• surrounds the heart

• pericardium
• makes up the pericardial cavity

• 3 layers.
• 1. fibrous pericardium: connective tissues that anchors the heart to the heart wall to diaphram
• 2. parietal pericardium: lines fibrous pericardium and is against the cavity wall
• 3. visceral layer:covers the surface of the heart

• 1st branches off of the aorta
• blood supply to the heart

• blockage of coranary arteries
• heart attack

• recieving chamber
• where blood enters the heart
• contract moving blood through the ventricles

bundles of muscle in the atria

• discharging chambers
• contract moving blood to the lungs

• pumps deoxygenated blood to the pulmonary trunk
• to the lung

• pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta
• thicker wall because it needs more force and strength to pump the blood to the rest of the body

• papillary muscles in the AV valves
• ridges of muscle in the ventricles

• on the back of the heart
• where oxygenated blood enters and goes to the left ventricle

deoxygenated blood enters and goes to the left ventricle

• atrioventricular valve
• betweem right atrium and the right ventricle
• 3 cusps

• atrioventricular valve
• between the left atrium and the left ventricle
• 2 cusps

• located at the base of the large blood vessels carrying blood away from the ventricle
• aortic semilunar valve: in aorta
• pulmonary semilunar valve: in pulmonary trunk

• anchors cusps of the AV valves to the papillary muscles
• tightens before ventricles contract

• great vessel
• from left ventricle
• blood goes to the systemic circuit

• from the right ventricle
• seperates into the right and left pulmonary arteries
• carries deoxigenated blood to the lungs

carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart

• arteries: carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart
• viens: carries oxygenated blood to the heart

bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart

• deoxyginated: right atrium to the superior and inferior vena cava, to the coronary sinur through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk through the pumonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary arteries to the lungs
• oxygenated: pulmonary viens bring back oxygenated blood to the left atrium through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle throught the aortic semilunar valve through the aorta to the coronary viens to the rest of the body

• act as one unit
• in sync
• gap junctions within the intercalated discs form electrical synapse by allowing ions to pass from cell to cell transmitting current along the heart

• straited
• centrally located nucleus
• contract by sliding filaments

connect the cardiac muscle cells

• stimulates itself to contract at regular intervals
• spontaneously depolarize
• depolarization spreads across the gap junctions from cell to cell

• sinoatrial node
• pacemaker
• upper right atrium
• has the fastest depolarization rat and sets the pace for the entire heart
• initates depolarization across atria

• atrioventricular node
• lower right atrium
• delayes impulse which allows atria to contract before the ventricles
• directs impulse towards the ventricles through the bundle of his

• only connection between the atria and then ventricles
• interventricular septum
• causes ventricles to contract

2 milliseconds

300 milliseconds

• causes elongated action potentials
• causes long refractory periods
• prevents tetnus
• when potassium leaves the cells it cancles out the calcium (new) which prolongs the refractory period

• causes an increase in heart rate
• increases strength of the contraction

• decrease heart rate
• decreases strenght of contractions

• in carotid artery and aorta
• sense blood pressure changes

• influences the autonomic control of blood pressure
• sensors send infor

• atrail depolarization
• precedes atrail contraction

• ventricular depolarization
• precedes ventricular contraction

• ventricular repolarization
• preceeds ventricular relaxation

produced in chambers as a result of contraction are resposible for the blood movement

contraction

relaxtion of the chambers

contraction of the atrium

contraction of the ventricles

• atrial filling: blood flows into the atria during relaxation 70% flows passively into the ventricles
• atrial systol: SA node depolarizes, p wave, atria contract and the other 30% of blood flows into the ventricles
• ventricle filling: AV valve open
• ventriclur systol: AV valves close and 1st sound av node to the purkinje fibers, QRS complex and the ventricle contract the blood initially stays in the chamber then pressure builds and forces the semilunar valves to open blood is ejected into the aorta or into the pulmonary trunk
• ventricle distole: ventricle relaxes and the pressure decreases and the semilunar valves close 2nd sounds

• amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
• stroke volume x heart rate

• amount of blood released by the ventricle during each contraction
• mL/beat

• how many times the heart contracts per minutes
• beats/min
• avg 75 beats/min

smallest branches of the arteries

• smalles blood vessel
• lovation of gas exchange between blood and interstitual fluid

collect blood from the capillaries

• tunica external: connective tissue covering outermost layer
• tunica media: thickest made of smooth muscle and is elastic
• tunica intima: endothelial linging simple sqaumous inter elastic membrane

facilitates the exchange of gases, nutrients, and water products

• the pressure exerted by a fluid
• forces water and small solutes out of the capillary wall

• meandering network of lymphatic vessels
• lymphocyte cell

destroy foreign invaders

a diease producing agent

the ability to resist infection or disease

T lymphocyte coming in contact with the target cell it is attacking (t cells)

• blood immunity
• b cells changing into plasma cell
• plasma cell makes and secretes protien antibodies in the blood stream
• the antibodies attack the target cells

antigens and t cells cause the b cells to dived and become plasma cells and memory b cells

• formes in bone marrow and mature in the thymus
• adaptive immunity
• recognize abnormal cells
• 1. cytotoxic Tcells: destroys by apoptosis, cytokines
• 2. helper Tcells: regulate B cells and cytoxic cells
• 3. memory Tcels remember antigen and hangs around to wait for the next attack

distributed across lymphatic vessels and filter lymph removing bateria and other materials

denser arrangements of lymphatic tissue in spleen and lymphnodes

• superior corner of the abdominal cavity
• smooth muscle
• destory defective red blood cells and detects and responds to forign substances

large phagocytic cells

bind with receptors and the inner surface of the plasma membrane. the cell and receptor change shape and bind

released to local/neighbor

acts on cell that produced it

• blood levels of chemicals
• other hormones
• nervous system

regulate secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands

• change in membrane permeability
• activate or deactive enzymes
• cause secretion
• cause mitosis

an increase in the number of receptors on the surface of a target cell to make it more sensitive to a hormone or other organ

• decrease in the number of receptors on a target cell make it less sensitve
• medications

necessary for the synthesis of T3 and T4

• stimulates gylclogen formation which inhances gluclose and fatty acide transport into cells
• storage of energy

alpha islets cells release glucogen

stimulates glyclogen breakdown and the release of gluclose by the liver

• transports gasses, nutrients, and waste products
• transport processed molecules
• transport regulartory molecules (hormones)
• regulation of osmosis
• regulation of PH and buffers
• maitence of body temp
• protection again foreign substances

• protien that carries oxygen
• low oxygen: hemoglobin releases oxygen at tissues and picks up carbon dioxide
• high oxygen: hemoglobin binds to oxygen at lungs and releases the carbon dioxide

molecules on the surface of red blood cells

• elastic: allows arteries to absorb pressure waves that come with each heart beat
• contractile: smooth muscle decreases diameter and increase pressure
• sympathetic: ANS cause vasoconstriction

• grouping of arteries near the base of the brain
• supplies all of the blood to the brain

• tunica interna is thinners
• tunica media is made out of less smooth muscle
• lower pressure
• valves or folds in tunica media

prevent backflow

• formed and matured in bone marrow
• release to lymphiod tissues
• adaptive immunity