-
The assignment of species to higher categories based on their presumed evolutionary relationships
Classification
-
The most fundamental unit of classification is the ________.
Species
-
Members of Homo genus
Homo sapiens, Homo erectus, Homo habilis
-
Members of the Hominid family (3)
Hominins, chimps, and gorillas
-
Hominins (2)
Genus Homo and Australopithecines
-
Members of the Hominoid superfamily
Hominids and the other apes
-
Species and genera are commonly referred to as _____ _______.
Lower taxa
-
Categories above the genus
Higher taxa
-
system of rules for constructing a classification
taxonomy
-
Resemblance due to similar adaptation to shared environmental conditions
analogies/convergences
-
similarity due to common descent
homology
-
generalized characteristics that arose early in the evolutionary history of a taxonomic group
primitive
-
advanced characteristics that arose relatively late in members of a group and will differ among them
derived
-
derived features that demonstrate a special evolutionary tie among taxa that have them
shared derived characteristics
-
derived features that distonguish a taxon from all others
unique derived features
-
tree diagram that organizes taxa according to the number of derived features they share
do not address time relationships or ancestor-vs-descendant relationships
cladogram
-
the smallest definable (mappable) unit of rock stratigraphy
bed
-
spatially and lithologically related bed are grouped into _____________
members
-
related members of stratigraphy are grouped into __________
formations
-
The smallest chronostratigraphic unit in common usage is the ______
stage
-
underlies the concept of stratigraphic units, and states that, all other things being equal, objects found in higher rock layers postdate (are younger than) objects found in deeper layers
principle of stratigraphic superposition
-
refers to the radioactivity in the burial environment, which is more difficult to estimate
external dose rate
-
refers to the radioactivity within the target being dated, which is readily estimated
internal dose rate
-
2 most important nonradiometric numerical dating methods?
tree-ring dating and varve dating
-
distinctive band of sediment, often made up of two subbands, that is laid down each year on the floor of a lake or other relatively calm body of water
varve
-
reaction that produces the conversion of L (left-handed) to D (right-handed) amino acids after tissue death
Racemization
-
Dating method whose dates are less precise; a cross between numerical and relative dating
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy
-
Late Cenozoic cold periods, with greatly enlarged ice sheets
Glacials
-
Intervening warmer periods with reduced ice sheets (e.g. Holocene)
Interglacials
-
Naturally occurring, stable nonradioactive isotopes of oxygen, which foraminifera and other marine organisms extract from seawater and build into their shells' chemical content. Used to measure climatic change in sea sediment.
Oxygen-16 and Oxygen-18
-
lesser units of species in which most individuals find their mates
demes/breeding populations
-
spontaneous, chance change in the chemical
structure of a gene, unusual, more likely to be harmful than helpful; much less
potential to alter gene frequencies than natural selection
Mutation
-
change in gene frequencies due strictly to chance
Random gene drift
-
Fossils reveal only the _________ of an individual, which may change independently of the _________, and vice versa
-
lf a species expands into diverse environments, as
many often have, or if environmental change physically separates populations of a single species, adaptation to local circumstances (NS) will cause the
populations to diverge genetically
Speciation/adaptive radiation
-
Speciation and adaptive radiation theories assume ____________ in terms of change
Anagenesis
-
gradual change along separate branches of the
evolutionary tree
Anagenesis
-
Type of evolution in which genetic change is relatively minor and occurs within separate breeding populations that continue to comprise a single species
Microevolution
-
Type of evolution in which genetic change is far more dramatic and ultimately produces separate species
Macroevolution
-
Rapid, abrupt change; often sparked by major climatic or environmental shifts (driven by natural selection)
Usually occurs in small, isolated populations
Punctuated equilibrium
-
A phylogeny is to a species as a ___________ is to an individual
Genealogy/family tree
-
When classifying species, characters with a ________ distribution are more likely to reveal the basic evolutionary links among taxa in the group
Limited
-
Made up of any geological objects arranged in a
sequence from younger to older
Stratigraphy
-
Stratigraphic units that include fossils, either floral or faunal
Biostratigraphic units
-
Stratigraphic units made of of human and prehuman fossils and artifacts
Culture-stratigraphic units
-
Most influential relative dating method that depends on chemical analysis
Flourine method
-
The study of what happens to an animal’s remains
between the time it dies and the time it fossilizes
Taphonomy
-
Mechanism to explain biological change we see over time, one of the 4 main forces of evolution
Natural selection
-
3 conditions of natural selection
Variation in a trait (because one has to be advantageous over the other[s])
Heritable
- Differential reproductive success (competition,
- survivorship, etc.)
-
an individual’s ability to survive and produce
offspring who themselves survive and reproduce
Fitness
-
Belief that geologic processes driving the natural world today are the same as those that drove it in the past
Uniformitarianism
-
Groups of actual or potentially interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups
Biological species concept
-
Any factor preventing a male and female of 2 different species from hybridizing
Reproductive Isolating Mechanism (RIM)
-
Premating RIMs? (4)
- Geographic isolation
- Temporal isolation
- Behavioral isolation
- Mechanical incompatibility
-
Postmating RIMs? (4)
- Sperm-egg incompatibility
- Zygote inviability
- Embryonic or fetal inviability
- Offspring viability and offspring sterility
-
physical expression of a genotype (subject to both
genetic and environmental influences)
Phenotype
-
genetic coding for a trait
genotype
-
discrete unit of inheritance
gene
-
a genotype variant
allele
-
an allele whose genotype is preferentially
expressed in the presence of other allele variants
Dominant
-
an allele whose genotype expression is inhibited by the presence of a dominant allele
Recessive
-
Lessons from Mendel (3)
- Genes are particulate (discrete particles)
- One from each parent
- Retain integrity generation after generation (don’t blend)
-
Reasons for variation in gene expression (3)
- Presence of other genes
- Developmental timing (epigenetics)
- Environmental factors (plasticity
-
Forces of evolutionary change (4)
- Natural selection
- Mutation
- Genetic drift
- Gene flow
-
evolutionary force that moves and spreads genetic material from one population to another of the same species; caused by migration
gene flow
-
random change in gene frequency within a population; occurs through the founder effect and genetic bottleneck
random genetic drift
-
only NEW source of genetic variation, mostly deleterious results, may be selected for by NS if it's beneficial
mutation
-
Source of genetic drift; in a population isolated from its parent pop, the new pop carries only the genetic variation within its founder ancestors (i.e. red hair and freckles in Irish pops)
Founder effect
-
2 ways in which macroevolution can occur
-
evolution of a trait or species into another over
multiple generations
Anagenesis
-
evolution through the branching off of a species or a lineage
Cladogenesis
-
Mode of speciation that is slow and incremental, with gradual change along separate branches of evolution; consistent with anagenesis; supported by Darwin's view
Phyletic gradualism
-
Problem with phyletic gradualism
Doesn’t explain the pattern (that we tend to see) of abrupt appearance and disappearance typical in the fossil record
-
Mode of speciation that involves rapid bursts of evolutionary change interspersed among long periods of stasis; consistent with cladogenesis; assumed to occur mostly in small/isolated populations where mutations can become easily fixed, and genetic drift is significant
Punctuated equilibrium
-
Sudden changes in new forms coinciding with climate
change, consistent with punctuated equilibrium
Turnover pulses
-
Any geological objects that can be arranged in a
sequence from older to younger
Stratigraphic units
-
Classification of lithostratigraphic units (rock layers)
Bed > Member > Formation
-
Dating methods that rely on constant processes well known to physics, chemistry, and biology to
determine age in years (of either a fossil itself or the setting surrounding the fossil)
Numerical/Absolute dating methods
-
Relative dating methods (3)
- Flourine Method
- Stratigraphy
- Biostratigraphic Dating
-
Relative dating method that can test whether bones were buried contemporaneously, or came from different times but ended up in the same layer, using their measurement of flourine from ground water
Flourine method
-
Relative dating method that follows the principle of superposition, assuming deeper layers (and fossils within them) are older than more shallow layers, assumed no movement of layers
Stratigraphy
-
Relative dating method that uses dates of when certain known fossils lived to determine others; successful with microtine teeth of rodents in Europe, and some larger animals in Africa/Eurasia
Biostratigraphic dating
-
Pitfalls of stratigraphy (2)
- Not all layers are horizontally aligned
- Fossil material can move through geologic processes, burrowing animals, etc.
-
Limit of the flourine method
Cannot compare relative age across sites; must be from the same site
-
Dating method that was used to expose the Piltdown Man as a hoax
Flourine method
-
Numerical dating method TYPES (2)
- Radiometric
- Nonradiometric
-
Numerical dating methods that rely on the constant decay of radioactive isotopes into more stable forms
Isotopic/radiometric methods
-
Limitations of radiometric methods (2)
Need specific types of bed material (i.e. volcanic rock)
Resolution is limited to specific time periods due to rates of decay
-
Radiometric dating method that is measured in volcanic ash and lava, has to do with cooling and heating events
Has been important for establishing ages of rock layers
Radiopotassium/Potassium-Argon Dating
-
Radiometric dating method that uses glasses and minerals to determine dates of cooling and heating events, determined using ratio of density of tracks to the amount of Uranium-238 in the sample
Fission-track dating
-
Radiometric dating method that is most useful for dating sea and lake bottom sediments
Dates climate events
Corals are the most reliable form from which to obtain data
Uranium-series dating
-
Radiometric dating method that measures age by calculating the difference between the C14/C12 ratio in a sample of dead tissue and the C14/C12 ratio in the atmosphere
The resulting difference is a function of the time since death
Contamination and atmospheric CO2 make the method problematic; dates must be calibrated
Radiocarbon dating
-
Radiometric dating methods that measure the aggregate number of electrons that become trapped in crystalline substances from radioactive isotopes, as well as the rate that they accumulated, then dividing number over rate, to determine the last time the crystal traps were empty
Use both heat and light analyses
Luminescence/Electron Spin Resonance
-
Nonradiometric numerical dating methods (3)
Varve Analysis
Tree-Ring dating
Amino Acid Racemization
-
Nonradiometric dating method that analyzes lake floor layers of sediment in calm waters; has a limited dateable range of 8-10,000 years; useful for tracing retreat Last Glaciation ice sheet, not so much for paleoanthropology
Varve analysis
-
Nonradiometric dating method that traces global shifts in polarity; useful for bracketing sites in time range when they can't be dated directly
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy
-
Radiometric dating method that was used to modern people in Israel from flint to 120-90 kya
Electron Spin Resonance
-
2 segments of the skeleton
-
3 sections of the cranium
- Branicase/vault
- Face/maxilla
- Lower jaw/mandible
-
Four basic types of permanent teeth in primates
- Incisors
- Canines
- Premolars
- Molars
-
Term used to indicate the portion of a tooth nearer the cheek
Buccal
-
Term used to indicate the portion of a tooth nearer the tongue
Lingual
-
Term used to indicare the portion of a tooth nearer the front of the mouth
Mesial
-
Term used to indicate the portion of a tooth nearer the rear of the mouth
Distal
-
Closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk
Proximal
-
Farther from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk
Distal
-
Toward or at the body surface
Superficial
-
Toward the head (2)
Cranial, Superior
-
Away from the body surface, more internal
Deep
-
portion of a bone closer to the midline of the body
medial
-
Portion of the bone further/away from the midline
lateral
-
Closer to the front of the body/toward the belly (2)
Anterior/Ventral
-
Closer to/toward the back of the body (2)
posterior/dorsal
-
-
-
friction ridges on on primates' tactile pads that facilitate grasping
dermatoglyphs
-
auditory bulla made up of the petrosal bone
petrosal bulla
-
Defining traits of primates (9)
- Petrosal bulla
- Complete postorbital bar
- Grasping hands and feet with opposable thumb/toe
- Nails instead of claws
- Larger relative brain size, more complex
- Decreased olfaction/reduced prognathism, smaller olfactory bulb
- Increased vision
- Dietary plasticity
- Slow life histories with extended development
-
Common traits of apes
- No tail
- Large body size
- Short, broad trunk
- Flexible shoulder joint
-
Members of the strepsirhini semiorder
Lemurs and lorises
-
Members of the haplorhine semiorder (4)
Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans
-
Suborders of Haplorhine semiorder (2)
Tarsiiformes, Anthropoidea
-
Members of the suborder Anthropoidea (2)
monkeys and apes
-
Infraorders of Anthropoidea (2)
-
Platyrrhines
New World monkeys
-
Catarrhines (2)
- Old World Monkeys
- Apes/Humans
-
Superfamilies of Catarrhines (2)
-
Superfamily of Platyrrhines
Cebids
-
dry-nosed primates
Haplorhines
-
moist-nosed primates
Strepsirhines
-
Taxonomic division that includes members of two distinct evolutionary branches or clades
Polyphyletic
-
Taxonomic division that includes some, but not all, members of a single, deeper evolutionary clade
Paraphyletic
-
Superfamilies of Anthropoidea (3)
- Hominoids (people and apes)
- Cercopithecoids (OWMs)
- Ceboids (NWMs)
-
Shared derived traits of Old World Monkeys and Apes (3)
- Dental formula
- External auditory meatus
- Complete closure of the bony wall behind the orbit
-
Gap between the upper canine and upper lateral incisor, present in apes, in which the lower canine fits
Diastema
-
Method of estimating the time(s) when extant taxa last shared a common ancestor using their genes and proteins
Biomolecular clock
-
Nonflowering plants such as conifers, palms, and
cycads
Gymnosperms
-
Flowering plants including trees, grasses, herbs,
etc.
Angiosperms
-
Semiorder of Primates/euprimates that resembles the lemurs and lorises, likely diurnal, larger than their tarsier-like relatives
Adapidiformes
-
Semiorder of Primates/euprimates that resembles the tarsiers, likely nocturnal, small sized
Omomyiformes
-
rapid increase of many new species from a single lineage, each of which is characterized by distinct adaptations
adaptive radiation
-
Trait most widely used to distinguish fossils as anthropoids?
Postorbital closure
-
Oldest known skulls that exhibit postorbital closure (earliest known anthropoids) come from __________
The Fayum Depression of Egypt
-
Superfamilies Protopithecoidea, Parapithecoidea, and Propliopithecoidea may represent the first ___________ genera in the ____________ region
Anthropoid, Fayum Depression
-
Very small animals seen in China and Pakistan, 45 mya and 32 mya, whose anatomy of jaws/ankles/teeth suggest that they form the base of anthropoid radiation and that African anthropoids are descended from Asian populations
Genus Eosimias
-
Potential ancestor of New World Monkeys (Platyrrhines)?
Proteopithecus
-
Early Miocene hominoid fossil that was primitive enough to be on or near the line leading to most subsequent homoids, including the great apes and humans
Proconsul
-
Early Miocene hominoid fossil from Africa that had adaptations for suspensory locomotion and other great ape-like postcranial features, better great ape ancestor candidate than Proconsul
Morotopithecus
-
Apes evolved in _________, and moved into _________
-
Miocene Eurasian ape (ancestor of modern apes) with a derived, apelike body, a shortened, inflexible waist skeleton, flat thorax, and long powerful arms/flexible shoulder joint
Dryopithecus
-
Chimpanzee-sized Miocene Eurasian ape with dental traits similar/possibly ancestral to Australopithecus (but likely to have been convergent evolution)
Graecopithecus
-
Late Miocene Eurasian ape (Asia) that was similar to the living orangutan, shared derived traits with Australipithecus
BUT postcranials indicate it was a monkeylike quadruped
Orangutan ancestor, not direct human (hominid) ancestor
Tear-shaped orbits like orangs
Sivapithecus
-
Late Miocene Asian ape that was perhaps the largest that ever lived, terrestrial, some shared specializations with Australopithecus
Gigantopithecus
-
First fossil chimpanzee found in ____________
Kapthurin Formation (Kenya)
-
Away from the head, toward the tail (2)
Caudal, inferior
-
Towarrd the head (2)
Cranial, Superior
-
cheekbones
zygomatic arches
-
-
Vertical part of the mandible
Ramus
-
-
Ear tube coming out of the ear from the auditory bulla, long in OWMs/apes; absent in NWMs
Auditory/Ectotympanic tube
-
Space for canines that also sharpens them, forms honing complex, lost in humans
Diastema
-
Trait shared by two or more taxa and their common ancestor (whose preceding ancestor did not have the trait)
Synapomorphic trait
-
Timing of first life on Earth
3 bya
-
1st vertebrate emerged _________, during the ________ era
4 mya, Paleozoic
-
1st mammal emerged _________, during the ________ era
250 mya, Mesozoic
-
1st primate emerged __________ (plesiadapiforms, or pro-primates)
65.5-60 mya
-
1st anthropoids (higher primates, monkeys and apes) emerged _________, during the _______ epoch
35-30 mya, Oligocene
-
1st euprimates (true primates) emerged _______, during the ________ epoch
50 mya, Eocene
-
1st ape (hominoid) emerged ___________, during the ________ epoch
20-17 mya, Miocene
-
LCA of chimps and humans split _________
5-8 mya
-
1st hominins emerged _________, during the _______ epoch
7-5 mya, Pliocene
-
Anatomically modern Homo sapiens emerged _________, during the _________ epoch
200 kya, Pleistocene
-
Timespan of the Paleozoic Era
570-225 mya
-
Timespan of the Mesozoic Era
225-65 mya
-
Timespan of the Cenozoic Era
65 mya - Present
-
Epoch during which Homo sapiens appears
Pleistocene
-
Epoch when origins of agriculture and civilization occur
Holocene
-
Epoch of Hominoid radiation
Miocene
-
Primate-like mammals that evolved during the Paleocene in Europe and North America
Plesiadapiforms
-
Plesiadapiforms were like primates in their _______, but had non-primate features like __________ and lacked a _________
- Postcranials
- Claws
- Postorbital bar
-
Plesiadapiforms were adapted for the ________ lifestyle, with a __________ activity pattern and a ___________ locomotion pattern.
- Arboreal
- Nocturnal
- Quadrupedal
-
Plesiadapiforms had a ___________ olfactory system, and their teeth suggested they ate ________ and ________.
-
Plesiadapiform species whose features suggest it may be the first true primate and support the Angiosperm/Insectivory hypothesis of primate features' evolution
Carpolestes simpsoni
-
Carpolestes simpsoni had primate-like features, i.e. _____________, __________ and ____________.
It was unlike primates in its ____________ and lack of ______________
- Grasping hands and feet
- Opposable big toe with nail
- Frugivory
- Claws on other digits
- Orbital convergence
-
Majority of early Miocene fossils belong to _________
Proconsul
-
Possible ancestors of NWMs that emerged in the late Oligocene (26-23 mya), suggesting African origins (but mysterious as OW and NW weren't connected then)
Aegyptopithecus
-
Apes evolved in ___________, and moved to ____________. Modern apes evolved from Miocene ___________ apes, implying a move back into ______________
Africa, Eurasia; Eurasian; Africa
-
sudden changes in new forms coinciding with
climate change, consistent with punctuated equilibrium
Turnover pulses
-
Proconsul had ___________ prognathism, ________ brain size, and __________ dentition that suggested it was __________
- Little
- Large
- Generalized
- Frugivorous
-
Most primate-like (but non-primate) mammals
Insectivorous, arboreal
Ancestral to earliest primates
Used as an outgroup to the earliest primates
(comparison animal)
Tree shrews/Tupaiiformes
-
Theory of primate featural evolution that was a spin-off of the arboreal hypothesis; predicted that primates' orbital convergence developed for stereoscopic vision and predatory success, and that their nails and grasping adapted for catching insects
Visual Predation Hypothesis
-
Theory of primate featural evolution that says evolved their grasping ability first, to deal with the arboreal environment and exploit new angiosperms, and that orbital convergence came later as an adaptation for insectivory
Angiosperm Exploitation/Insectivory
-
Theory of primate featural evolution that says that since the earliest primates evolved during angiosperm radiation, they developed enhanced color vision to discriminate ripe fruits from unripe ones; and that grasping evolved to exploit unreachable fruits
Terminal Branch Feeding/Angiosperm Exploitation Hypothesis
-
A group that shares one common ancestor
Monophyletic
-
A group that shares more than one common ancestor
Paraphyletic
|
|