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Analgesic
Any drug that helps alleviate or block pain
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NSAID
Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug
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Anesthesia
- Loss of sensation without pain
- Pharmacologically induced
- Reversible
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Anestheisa is a reversible state of...
- Amnesia
- Analgesia
- Loss of consciouness
- Loss of skeletal muscle reflexes
- Decreased stress response
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Reasons for using Anesthesia
- Examination
- Restraint
- Manipulation
- Surgery
- Control seizures and/or convulsions
- Euthanasia
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Examination
A physical or radiograph
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Restraint
In order to groom, splint, suture, etc., animals have to be restrained to make it easier
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Manipulation
A part or bone is sticking out or pulled out and it has to be fixed. Ex: A dog's bone sticking out of its leg after a car accident
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The 3 Basic Types of Anesthesia
Local, Regional, and General
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Local
- Agent works on neurons in a limited, specific area.
- The shot given to you before getting stitches
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Regional
- Loss of pain sensation in certain regions of the body.
- Epidural
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Regional Block
Used to test a lame horse
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General
Drug induced loss of consciousness during which patients are not arousable, even by painful stimulation.
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Types of Inhalants
Chamber, mask, and intubate
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Intubate
Put a tube down the throat and connect it to a gas anesthetic machine or oxygen machine.
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3 Essential Requirements with Inhalants
Supply O2 to lung alveolar membrane Remove CO2 from lungs; something has to capture the CO2 when it comes out so they don’t breathe it back in Supply anesthetic gas at a controlled partial pressure
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Advantage of Parenteral
Simplicity of equipment (just a needle and syringe)
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Disadvantages of Parenteral
- Slower onset than inhalants
- Very difficult to control the amount of anesthesia
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Advantages of Inhalants
- Faster than liquid anesthetics
- Control depth of anesthesia
- Wake up within 5-15 minutes
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Disadvantages of Inhalants
- Complicated and expensive equipment
- Environmental pollution
- Bad for your health as well (toxins)
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Criteria for Species
Different species require different anesthetics
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Criteria for Health Status
Some animals won't be able to recover from anesthesia because of their current health problems, like borderline kidney or liver failure, or a tumor. Decisions have to be made according to the health status
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Criteria for Post-Op Fate
What's going to happen to the animal when the procedure is done. Ex: Mom and pups
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Facilities
What's available for us to use
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Legal aspects
Doing things ethically and morally
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Jab stick
A long stick with a needle and an anesthetic on the end
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Dart gun vs. Blow gun
A dart gun can hurt the animal if it's too close or comes out too fast. A blow gun is safer and more accurate
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Reversible Anesthetics
A wild animal must be able to defend itself once we walk away, so we need to reverse what we did. If an animal is defenseless something will come and kill it.
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Stages of anesthesia
- Stage 1 (Onset)
- Stage 2 (Excitement)
- Stage 3 (Surgical Depth)
- Stage 4 (OD/Death)
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Stage 1 (Onset)
- Analgesia/Amnesia
- Mostly conscious with normal vitals
- No lowering of pain reaction, so don't do pain test (you will get bitten)
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Stage 2 (Excitement)
- Exaggerated reflexes (muscle twitching)
- Animals may struggle, bite, kick
- Need to progress through this rapidly to minimize effects
- Drug is designed to reach the heart and OD
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Plane 1
- Still has blink and swallow reflexes
- Regular respiration with good chest motion
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Plane 2
- Best plane for surgery
- Normal respiration/chest movement
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Plane 3
- Deep anesthesia
- Depressed heart rate and respiratory rate
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Plane 4
Death is coming close
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Stage 4
- Anesthesia reaches heart and OD's
- Death
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Monitoring animals
- Animals are checked periodically
- Clinical signs checked: Respiration (RR), Circulation (HR), Muscle Relaxation (all the muscles twitch after death), Ocular (eyes become divergent-centrally located)
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Reflexes that are checked periodically
Corneal, Palpebral (eyelids), Vibrissae (whiskers), Pinch (toe, tail, and ear); we need to make sure we cut off the pain threshold
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Common drugs: Phenothiazines
- Acepromazine (Ace)
- Very strong sedatic traits
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Butorphanols
- Torbugesic, Torbutrol
- Very potent analgesics
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Benzodiazepines
- Diazepam (Valium)
- Very strong muscle relaxant
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Xylazine Hydrochloride
- Xylazine (Rompun)
- Very strong sedatic traits, very potent analgesic, very strong muscle relaxant
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Thiopental Sodium/Thiamylal
- Pentothal/Surital
- Pre-anesthetic; More commonly known in people as "truth serum." It releases your inhibitions to answer questions; doesn't necessarily mean you can't lie
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Pentobarbital Sodium
- Controls seizures, particularly in dogs
- Pentobarb; Nembutal, Mebumal
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Ketamine Hydrochloride
- No muscle relaxant properties
- Ketamine; Ketalar, Ketaset, Ketmex, Ketotal
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Common Inhalants (Volatile Anesthetics)
Halothane, Methoxyflurane, Enflurane, Isoflurane, Sevoflurane, Desflurane
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Halothane and Methoxyflurane
- Can be used interchangeably and most common in small animals
- Halothane is very liver toxic
- Methoxyflurane is metabolized by the body and becomes toxic to the kidneys
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Enflurane and Isoflurane
As soon as you cut the anesthesia and give the animal fresh O2, they start to wake up immediately.
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Nutrition
Science of food composition and its use by the body
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Commercial diets
Those that you buy commercially; come prepared for you already
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Advantages of Commercial
- Regulated by Federal and State laws
- Balanced
- Premade
- Very long shelf life
- Plenty of choices
- Pretty high nutritive value
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Disadvantages of Commercial
- Not quite as balanced as Prepared diets
- Batch variability (one batch might be better than another)
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Prepared diets
Ones that you have to physically make up yourself; fresh
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Advantages of Prepared
- Much more nutritive value than Commercially made
- Fresh
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Disadvantages of Prepared
- Don't last that long (fresh food spoils)
- Time-consuming
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Sources of energy
Carbs, Fat, and Protein
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Carbs
The body can metabolize carbs quickly and efficiently
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Fats
Fats store food/energy; Body can get to it easily
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Proteins
- Single greatest source of protein is red meat (better than fish and any plant)
- Protein is the last source of energy; body can metabolize energy from protein somewhat
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Complete protein
- All animal proteins (meat, fish, poultry, milk, cheese, and eggs); anything derived from animals
- They have ample amounts of amino acids, which we need
- Gelatin is the only animal protein that is incomplete; it doesn't have all the essential amino acids
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Incomplete protein
- Grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, all vegetable proteins
- They contain some amino acids but not all or not the essential ones
- Grains and legumes are both high in fiber
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Essential amino acids
- Arginine
- Histidine
- Isoleucine
- Leucine
- Lysine
- Methionine
- Phenylalaline
- Threonine
- Tryptophan
- Valine
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Minerals
- Inorganic elements
- Utilized as structural components of tissue and cellular compounds
- Catalysts for enzyme activity
- Body does not produce them
- Taken in small (trace) amounts
- Found within food supply in small amounts
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Mineral deficiency
If animals don't get enough minerals, they won't get absorbed. Increased demand by body and increased urinary loss
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Common minerals
Calcium (bone growth), Iodine (key component in growth, Thyroid), Phosphorous, Chlorine, Iron (blood can carry oxygen; hemoglobin), Selenium, Chromium, Magnesium, Sodium (water balance in body), Potassium (water balance in body), Copper, Manganese, Zinc, Flourine, Molybdenum
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Vitamins
- "vita"=life, "amine"=amino groups (C-O-H)
- They are organic compounds- cannot be oxidized into energy; you need them in larger amounts than minerals (macrogram or milligram). What type of vitamin you get depends on whatever food you have.
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2 types of vitamins
Fat soluble and Water soluble
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Fat soluble Vitamins
Vitamins K, A, D, and E. -> they are the only vitamins that you can OD on. Every other vitamin is water soluble
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Vitamin D
- Calcium
- You can get it from the sun, and it's hard to manufacture in food
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Vitamin K
Important for blood coagulation
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Water soluble vitamins
Cannot OD on them; your body just flushes them out, specifically Vitamin C.
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Vitamin Deficiency
Common causes: Don't get enough, impaired absorption, increased metabolic demand
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Fiber
- Class of compounds
- Nondigestible polysaccharides found in plant cell walls
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Forms of diets
- Pellets: Most common diet for lab animals; come in different sizes and shapes
- Meal: Ground up and powdery
- Semi-moist: Cat food and other animal food that comes in pouches or cans
- Liquid
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Types of Diets
Natural, Purified, Chemically defined, and Special
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Purified Diet
Have a distinct purpose; we know ALL of the ingredients. Completely open formulas, very precise nutrient composite, repeatable consistency (made the same way every time), easy to modify
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Chemically Defined Diet
- Have simple, elemental nutritive components
- No further digestive breakdown is necessary
- Defined formula diets
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Types of Special Diets
Sterile, Added Vitamins, and Fiber Level
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Sterile Diet
- Lab animals; passed thru an autoclave before given out so it's completely sterilized
- Don't want the feed to affect the study
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Added Vitamin Diet
Ex: Guinea pigs need to be given Vitamin C
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Fiber Level
- Different animals have different fiber requirements.
- Pertains to larger animals (livestock, wild)
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Temperature of feed
Controlled to avoid mold and spoiling; gives it a longer shelf life
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Humidity at which feed is stored
Controlled in labs because food is stored in the hundreds over a longer period of time. Not a big deal for pets at home because we go thru food fast at home
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Vermin proof
Avoid bugs and mice
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Closed Containers
Everything is closed in case an animal escapes
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Clean
Always kept clean and sterile for lab animals
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Stacked
Piled up extremely high to store more
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Rotate stock
Food is logged in; when it expires it's thrown out
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Water
- 60-75% of our body weight is water
- If you lose more than 15% of your body weight in water, it will result in death
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Water is needed for:
- Digestion
- Metabolism: Absorption of nutrients
- Body temperature: Regulated thru water
- Transport: For blood; blood needs water
- * Animals can only go three days without water
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Watering Devices
Bowls, Bottles & Sipper Tubes, Automatic, RO
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Bowls
Come in all shapes and sizes
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Bottles and Sipper tubes
- Different angles and different sizes/shapes
- All made for different types and sizes of animals
- Plastic vs. Glass bottles: Glass is cheaper to manufacture and clean, but they break easily. Plastic is costly, doesn't clean easily, and erodes over time
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Automatic
- It's the preferred way, but not used here
- Animals have a constant supply of water, cleaned with chlorine
- Outside, the lines have to be deep enough that they don't freeze during the winter; bacteria can easily grow in the lines, so they constanly have to be flushed out
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RO
- Reverse Osmosis
- High tech process; mainly in high end, expensive labs
- Expensive but not very efficient
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Water treatments
- Physical: Boil it and then let it cool
- Chemical: Chlorine/Bromine
- Irradiation: UV filters so water passes thru a UV stream
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Softwood bedding
Hard to the touch
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Hardwood bedding
- Chips tend to be dustier and have to be changed more frequently
- Pros: they have no odor, minimal dust, last longer (hold more urine and feces)
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Corn Cobs
- Shredded corn cobs, semi-hard substance, odorless, long-lasting, dust-free
- Expensive
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Paper bedding
Soft, odorless, dusty, must be changed frequently, cheap
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Sawdust
- Mainly used for livestock
- Very absorbent, has an odor, very dusty
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Straw
Dust-free but makes a mess
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Qualities of Good bedding
- Dust-free
- Non-edible
- No pathogens
- No toxins
- Non-hygroscopic: doesn't attract water
- Comfortable
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Euthanasia
- Method that induces rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or stress/distress
- Animals are never put to sleep in front of other animals
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Humane
Have to have the ability to cause unconsciousness or death without pain or stress
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Reliable
Everything has to work
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Safe
Safe for the vet and other employees to use and be around
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Irreversible
Make sure the owner doesn't change their mind after it's done
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Compatible
- It has to be compatible with the requirements and what you're doing
- Has to be appropriate for animal/species
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Appropriate
- There can't be any effects later on; mainly a concern for animals that are used for food and wildlife. If there's a toxin that stays in a meat cow, it could kill the people that eat it. Same for wildlife. If the animal dies and other animals eat it, it will be a chain reaction
- Equipment must be maintained
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Three basic mechanisms of Euthanasia
- Hypoxia (taking oxygen away), direct or indirect
- Direct depression of neurons necessary for life function
- Physical disruption of brain activity and destruction of neurons necessary for life
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Three main types to euthanize
- Inhalant (CO2 chamber)
- Parenteral: injection
- Physical: captive bolt
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Advantages of Inhalants
- Valuable for small animals
- Good if venapuncture is difficult or impossible
- Non-flammable
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Disadvantages of Inhalants
- Animals can struggle and become anxious
- Ether used to be used but was too flammable
- Both personnel and animals can be injured because of exposure to gases
- Potential for human abuse
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Advantages of using CO2 as an Inhalant
- Very rapid
- Readily available
- Inexpensive
- Non-flammable
- Not hazardous
- No accumulation in tissues so it's good for meat and poultry
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Disadvantages of CO2
- Heavier
- Burrowing and diving animals are used to breathing in CO2
- May take longer
- Reptiles and amphibians breathe too slowly to get enough in to kill them
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Parenterals as Euthanasia
- Most rapid and reliable method
- Most desirable method when it can be used without causing fear or distress in the animal
- IM, SC, and intrathecal are not appropriate because they take too long/too slow
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Barbituric Acid Derivatives (BADs)
Preferred method for dogs, horses, cats, and other small animals
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Advantages of using BADs
- Speed at which it works (depends on dose, concentration, route, and rate of injection)
- Minimal discomfort
- Less expensive
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Disadvantages of using BADs
- Requires trained personnel
- Animals MUST be restrained
- DEA guidelines: You have to keep a DEA log. Every drop must be accounted for
- Aesthetically objectionable
- Drugs persist in carcasses
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Chloral hydrate
Only for large animals
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Tricaine Methane Sulfonate
Fish & Amphibians: It's put in the water and they breathe it in thru their gills
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KCL
- Only with general anesthesia
- Preferred method for livestock/wildlife
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Advantages of KCL
No residue; nothing toxic stays in the body
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Disadvantages of KCL
- Can see a lot of rippling muscle effects; spasms
- Requires general anesthesia so personnel have to be trained
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T-61
- Nonbarbiturate, non-narcotic mix of 3 drugs
- Provide a combo of general anesthetic, curariform, and local anesthetic actions
- Banned in US (has really nasty side effects); only used overseas now
- Inexpensive
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Physical methods
- The AWA prefers them because they are the most humane way to euthanize animals and they meet all AWA guidelines, but they're not aesthetically pleasing
- Well trained personnel with good equipment
- More humane, less stressful, faster
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Types of Physical methods
Captive bolt, gunshot, cervical dislocation, decapitation, electrocution, microwave irradiation, kill traps, thoracic compression, exsanguination, maceration, stunning, and pithing
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Captive bolt
- Gun powder or air powered
- Good restraint essential
- Horses, cows, swine
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Advantage/Disadvantages of Captive Bolt
- Adv. - Effective
- Disadv.: Aesthetically displeasing, death might not occur if the equipment isn't maintained properly
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Gunshot
- Fastest
- Most humane
- Most practical
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Advantages of gunshot
- Loss of consciousness is instantaneous
- Minimizes stress of animal and family
- Most logical method (especially with wildlife and freeroaming animals)
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Disadvantages of Gunshot
- Dangerous to personnel
- Can be difficult to hit target area (mainly for wildlife)
- Aesthetically displeasing
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Cervical dislocation
- Small rodents, rabbits, and poultry
- Must be technically proficient
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Necropsy Procedure
- Observe
- Open body, collect samples/tissues, record lesions
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Purpose of Necropsy
Diagnosis, QA, toxicology
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Aseptic technique
- Does not mean sterile
- Means without microorganisms
- Remove or kill microorganisms, use sterile instruments, reduce client's risk of exposure to microorganisms that we can't remove
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Aseptic is a procedure involving:
Wound repair, Microbiology, Cell culture, Minor surgery, Blood collection, Injections, Necropsy/Pathology
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Handwashing
Most important aseptic technique
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Surgical scrubs
Change out of the clothes you're wearing
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Using barriers
- Anything that you're using to seperate the animal from bacteria (not necessarily an actual barrier)
- Sterile drape, gloves, gown, mask, etc.
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Animal Prep
What we do to get the animal ready/prepared; scrubbing, clipping, washing, etc.
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Maintaining a sterile field
- Only bring sterile objects into the sterile field
- If our hands go below our waist or above our shoulders, they are no longer sterile; includes from the tips of our fingers to our elbows
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Safe operative technique
- Make the smallest possible incision
- Control the bleeding so you can see what you're doing
- Avoid trauma to surrounding tissues
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Safe area around procedural area
- Clean workspace (free of clutter), minimal amount of objects in the room, not a lot of people, no dust.
- All surgical rooms contain A/C because the surgeon's could pass out if it gets too hot, especially with full gowns on. Also, the equipment needs to be kept cold
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Aseptic Technique: Blood Collection
- Visually inspect collection site
- Feel for vein location
- Clean as needed (Clip hair; don't shave, Soap and warm water, Betadine, Chlorhexadine)
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Needle and Syringe size
- If the needle is too big, it will be too much pressure and collapse the vein
- If it's too small, the blood will clot
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Needle size for mice
25-27 gauge
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Needle size for rats
23-24 gauge, 25 would be the limit because they have thicker skin
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Needle size for dogs
22-20 gauge; 23 would be the smallest possible one; no bigger than 20
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Needle size for horses and cows
14 gauge is most common
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Red top collection tube
- Most common
- Serum seperator
- No anticoagulants in it
- Has a gel at the bottom that traps the cells and keeps plasma at the top of the tube
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Purple top collection tube
- Heparin
- Used for complete blood count
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Technique for sterile syringe use
- Open syringe package
- Don't uncap until ready to use
- Break syringe seal
- Check that bevel is lined up with volume markings
- Recheck stick site
- Uncap and use syringe
- Don't recap after use (illegal)
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Needles
- Keep the bevel up
- Higher gauge is smaller diameter
- Don't touch anything except the stick site with the needle
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Vacutainer Draws
- Attach needle to plastic sleeve
- Uncap and stick
- Gently push collection tube onto needle
- Switch tubes as needed
- Invert tubes to mix; don't shake
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Injections
- Check site visually and by touch
- May clip, if allowed by owner
- Can wet with alcohol
- Prepare syringe and needle
- Fill syringe from drug bottle after wiping septum with alchol
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Giving Injections
- Pull back on syringe and check for flashback
- If going IV, you want to see blood
- If going IM, IP, SQ, or ID, you just want air
- One exception is urine; if you inject something into the bladder by accident, the animal will just pee it right out. Urine is also a sterile liquid, so you wouldn't have to take the needle completely out and throw it out. You can just relocate it
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Sterile Site Prep
- Clip area
- Wash with alcohol; 70% of alcohol will kill common contaminants
- Wash with betadine (outward)
- Can do a final alcohol rinse
- Don't touch area with anything not sterile
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Surgical Prep (In order)
- 1.) Put on cap, mask
- 2.) Wash hands and dry well: wash your hands for 5 mins from fingers to elbows. there is usually a timer next to the sink
- 3.) Gown
- 4.) Gloves: you want to put gloves on last because you don't want to have to wash your hands again
- 5.) Prepare area for sterile instruments: lay out sterile field, one partner will put on gloves
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Maintaining a sterile field during surgery
- Keep hands up and clasped
- Touch only sterile objects/areas
- Face your sterile field
- Keep talking to a minimum
- Don't move around
- Don't lean over the field
- Keep sterile objects in the field
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