-
long term memory
our permanent knowledge base
-
stone model
of the information-processing system assumes that we hol, or store info. in three parts of the mental system for processing
-
Development of information processing increased in two broad ways?
- 1. capacity- memory span and processing speed
- 2. strategy use- chunking
-
Neo-piagetian perspective
- suggest change within each stage due to increase in
- 1. working memory capacity
- 2. brain development
- 3. practice with schemes and automatization
- 4. central conceptual structure
-
evolutionary perspective on cognition
- -generate variety of strategies
- -selected strategies survive
- -others die off
-
overlapping waves theory
- -try variety of strategies
- -observe how well they work
- - gradually select those leading to rapid, accurate answers
-
ways of finding more efficient strategies
- -using slower technique
- -problem requires it
- -reasoning about concpets
- -being taught
-
types of attention
- -sustained
- -selective
- -adaptable
-
sustained attention
constant
-
selective attention
focus back and forth
-
adaptable attention
whats in your best interest
-
development of sustained attention
- increases sharply between 2 and 3-1/2 yrs.
- -frontal lobe growth
- -more complex play goals
- - adult scaffolding
-
cognitive inhibition
- ability to control distracting stimuli
- -internal- thoughts (anxiety)
- -external- distractions (ADHD)
- Improves from infancy on
- -gains on complex tasks from middle school to adolescence
-
development of attention strategies
- 1. production deficiency
- 2. control deficicency
- 3. utilization deficiency
- 4. effective strategy use
-
Attention Deficit Hyperactive disorder (ADHD)
- inattention
- impulsivity
- excessive motor activity
results in social and academic problems
-
planning
- -begins in infancy
- -improves with age
- -tools, teaching, practice help children learn to _____
-
steps in planning
- -postponing action to weigh alternatives (inhibition)
- -organizing task materials
- - remembering steps of plan
- -monitoring how well plan works
- -revising if necessary
-
strategies for storing information
- -reherasal
- -organization
- -elaboration
creating shared meaning or a relationship betwn two pieces of info.
-
recognition
- -noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced
- -easier than recall
-
recall
- -generating a mental representation of an absent stimulues
- -more difficult than recognition
-
constructive processing
-we select and interpret info. as it is encoded stored or retrieved
can happen deliberately or due to "fuzzy trace"
-
semantic memory
- -vast
- - oganized- taconimically or hierarchically
- - grows from episodic memory
- -repeated event form script
- -structed general knowledge
-
autobiographical memory
- -long lasting representation of one time events
- -persoanl meaning
- -dev. basis after age 2
- -parents help dev. narrative
-
eyewitness memory
- preschoolers' testimony less reliable than school age children's
- - less dev. lang. skills
- -desire to please
- -poorer source-monitoring
- -bias toward specifics; less gist memory
- -less skill with autobiographical narratives-may leave out details
- -suggestibility
-
metacognition
- -awareness and understanding of various aspects of thought
- -dev. with
- 1. theory of mind
- 2. knowledge of mental activity- cognitive capacities, strategies, task variables
-
emergent literacy
children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through experiences
-
early childhood mathematical reasoning Ordinality
- relationships between quantities
- 14-16 months
-
early childhood mathematical reasoning Cardinality
when counting, last number is the total
-
advantages of info. processing approach
- -breaks complex cognitive activites into precise components
- -provides details of aga and skill-related differences
- -describes precise mechanisms of cognitive dev.
-
disadvantages of info. processing approach
- -components hard to combine into broad pic
- -cpu metaphors simplify real life experience;overlooks nonlinear aspects, interaction with others
- -slow to include bio. evolution
-
ADHD diagnosis
- - at least 6 of 9 symptoms of either inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity, or 6 or more of each in both
- -inpairments/symptoms before 7 yrs old
- -2 or more settings
- -clinical impairments in social, academic, etc
- not better accounted for ( PDD, anxiety)
-
Fuzzy trace theory
infomation is reconstructed automatically at encoding into a vague fuzzy version called gist
-
Spearman
believed that factor analysis are correlated
-
Thurston
"g" not important unrelated "primary mental abilities are most impt. currently of approach
-
factor analysis
- -identifies sets of test items that cluster together
- - ppl. who do well on one item do well on others in cluster, or factor
-
componential analysis
-examines relationships btwn info. processing components and children's performance on intell tests
-
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intell
- -analytical intell- apply strategies
- -creative intel-solve novel problems
- -practical intel-adapt to
-
Gardner's multiple intelligence
- -linguistic
- -logico-mathematical
- -spatial
- -musical
- -bodily kinesthetic
- -interpersonal
- -intrapersonal
-
group test
- -allow testing of large groups
- -require little training to adminster
- -usefuk for instructional planning
- -identify students who need indiv. testing
-
indiv. test
- -examiners need training and experience- provide insight about accuracy of score
- -identify highly intell. children and also those with learning problems
example: stanford binet
-
communication styles of higher SES whites
- -knowledge-training questions
- -topic focused story style
- -hierarchical task style
-
communication styles lower SES minorities
- -real question
- -topic-associating style
- -collaborative task style
-
Cultural bias in testing two views
- 1. test not biased; represent success in the common culture
- 2. cultural factors can hurt test performance
- -communication styles
- - culture-specific content
- - sterotypes
-
Types of home enviromental influences Shared
affect all siblings similarly
-
types of home environment Nonshared
make siblings different from one another
-
Nonshared environmental influences
- - birth order
- -spacing
- -sibling relationships
- -parental favorites
- -assigned roles
- -different impact of family events
- -inlfuences away from home
-
creativity
ability to produce original appropriate work
-
creativity- psychometric approach
diverent thinking
-
creativity investment theory
novel project increases chances of creative, valuable product
-
component of language-phonology
rules about structure and sequence of speech of counds
-
component of language-semantics
vocab.-words and word combinations for concepts
-
component of lang. Grammar
- syntax-rules for sentences
- morphology-grammatical markers
-
components of lang. Pragmatics
appropriate and effective communication
-
Behaviorist theory of lang. dev.
learned through operant cond. (reinforcement) and imitation
-
Nativist theories of lang. dev.
language acquisition device (LAD) biologically prepares infants to learn rule of lang. through univeral grammar
-
Interactionist theory of lang. dev
inner capacities and environment work together; social context is important
-
broca's area
- effortful speech
- grammatical processing and language production
-
wernicke's area
comprehending word meanings
-
language acquisition device
an innate system that permits them, as soon as they have acquired sufficient vocabulary, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understant the meaning of sentences they hear
-
categorical speech perception
ability to distinguish phonemes
tendency to preceive range of a sounds phonemic class as identical (hard/soft)
-
underextension
apply words too narrowly
-
child directed speech
form of communication made up of short sentences with high pitched exaggerated expression , clear ponounciation disinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts
-
cooing
vowel like noises 2 months
-
babbling
repeat constant vowel combinations in long strings
-
protodeclatative
boby touches an objcet holds it up or points to it while looking at at other to make sure they notice
-
protoimperative
infant gets another person to do something by reach, pointing and ofetn making sounds at the same time
-
fast mapping
children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter
-
referential style
their vocabularies consit of words that refer to objects
-
expressive style
they produce many more social formulas and pronouns
-
underextension
apply words too narrowly
-
overextension
applying a word to a broader collaboration of objects and event thatn is appropriate
-
phonological store
- permits us to retain speech based information
- inlfuence of memory on language
-
lexical contrast theory
- assumes two principles govern vocab growth: Conventionality, childrens natural desire to acquire the words and word meaning of their lang community
- and Contrast which explains how new owrd they hear is unique. there fore when they hear a new label they try to figure out its meaning by contrasting it with words they know and assigning it to gap in their vocab
-
mutual exclusivity bias
that is, they assume that words refer to entierely separate (non overlapping categories)
-
telegraphic speech
focus on high content words and leave out smaller, less impt. ones
-
overregularization
but once children grasp regular morphological rule they extend it to words that are exceptions
-
word coinages
make up new words rule based
-
syntactic bootstrapping
discover meaning by how words are used in syntax, structure of sentences
-
shading - pragmatic dev.
change in topic is initiated gradually by modifying the focus of discussion
-
illocutionary knowledge- pramatic dev.
knowing what is meant/intended even if the form of utterance is not perfectly consisitent with it.
-
billingual education
support and instruction in native lang. while learning engl.
-
emotions
- rapid appraisal of personal significance of situations
- energized behavior prepare for action
-
basic emotions
happiness, interest, suprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, universal in humans and other primates
-
functions of emotions -effect of emotion
- lead to learning essential for survival
- can impair learning
-
functions of emotions- social
- affect behavior of others
- regulate own behavior
-
functions of emotions- health
- influence well-being growth
- stress related to diseases
-
Coping strategies- Problem-centered coping
- -used when situation is seen as changeable
- -identify the difficulty
- -decide what to do about it
-
Coping strategies- Emotion centered coping
- -used if problem-centered coping does not work
- -internal private control of distress
-
social referencing
relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation
-
emotional self-regulation
refers to strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals
-
common early-childhood fears
monsters, ghost,, darkness, preschool child care, animals
-
prosocial or altruistic behavior
actions that benefit another person without expected reward for the self
-
empathy
feeling same or similar emotions as another person
"I can see where your coming from"
-
sympathy
feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight
-
temperament
social warm good at emotional regulation lead to high empathy
-
effortful control
self regulatory dimension of temperament; voluntary supressing a dominant response for more adaptive behavior
-
easy child- temperament
child quickly est. regular routines in infancy is generally cheerful and adapts easily to new experiences
-
difficult child- temperament
child has irregular daily routines is slow to accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely
-
slow to warm up child - temperament
child inactive, shows mild, low key, reaction to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new experiences
-
inhibited, shy -temperament
- -react negatively withdraw from new stimuli
- -high heart rates, stress hormones and stress symptoms
- -higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity
-
unihibited sociable
- -react positively approach new stimuli
- -low heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms
- -high left hemipshere frontal cortex activity
-
types of attachment
- secure
- avoidant
- resistant
- disorganized/disoriented
-
goodness of fit model
describe how temperament and environmental pressures can together produce favorable outcomes
-
ethological theory of attachment
- 1. preattachment
- 2. attachment in the making
- 3. clear cut attachment
- -separation anxiety
- 4. formation of a reciprocal relationship
-
attachment
strong, affectionate tie we have with special ppl in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness during times of stress
-
I Self
- sense of self as agent
- separate from surrounding world
- can control own thoughts and actions
-
Me-Self
- sense of self as object of knowledge and evaluation
- qualities that make self unique
- -physical charact
- -material charact
- -social charact
-
self recognition
identification of the self as a physically unique being
-
categorical self
classify self and others by age, sex, physical charact.,goodness/badness
-
remembered self
- "life story" of autbiographical memories
- dev. from adult-child conversations
- based on own history
-
factors that contribute to theory of mind
- language
- cognitive abilities
- attachment
- maternal
- make believe play
- social interaction
-
self esteem
- judgments we make about our own worth
- feelings about those judgments include - global appraisal & judgments of different aspects of self
-
desire theory of mind
they think that ppl always act in ways consistnet with their desires and do not understand that less obvious more interpretive mental states such as beliefs affect behavior
-
influences on self esteem
- age school transitions
- culture
- child rearing practices
-
achievement related attributions mastery oriented
- attribute success to abilty
- incremental views of ability- can imporve by trying
- foucs on learning goals
-
achievement related attributions- learned helplessness
- attribute failure to ability
- entity view of ability- cannot be changed
- focus on performance goals
-
self concept
the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that an indiv. believes defines who he or she is
-
social comparisons
judging their appearance abilities and behavior in relation to those of others
-
identity- Erikson theory
- defining who you are what you value and direction in life
- commitments to vocation, persoanal, sexual orientation, ethnic group, ideals
- resolution of "indentity crisis" or exploration
-
identity confusion- Erikson theory
- lack of direction and definition of self
- restricted exploration in adolscence- earlier psychosocial conficts not resolved. society restricts choices
- unprepared for stages of adulthood
-
identity achievement
commitment to values, beliefs and goals following period of exploration
-
identity foreclosure
commitment in the absence of exploration
-
identity diffusion
an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment
-
perspective taking
improves greatly from childhood to adolescenceas Selman's five stage sequence indicates
|
|