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Freud's Psychoanalytic Stages
- Oral: Birth-1.5 years
- Anal: 1.5-3 years
- Phallic: 3-6 years
- Latency: 6-puberty
- Genital: puberty on
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Erik Erikson
- Neo-Freudian
- Believes social interaction drives human behavior and personality development
- Epigenetic Principle: we develop through predetermined unfolding of our personalities in 8 stages
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Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust (age 0-1): Child learns environment can supply basic needs
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (ages 1-3): Child develops sense of free will and a sense of regret for inappropriate use of self-control
- Initiative vs. Guilt (ages 3-6): Child learns to begin action, to explore and feel remorse for actions
- Industry vs. Inferiority (ages 7-12): child learns to do things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12-18): Adolescent develops sense of self
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s): Develops ability to give and receive love. Makes long term commitment to relationships
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (late 20's to 50's): Adult develops interest in guiding the next generation
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair (50s and beyond): Develops acceptance of life as it was lived and important of people in life
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Robert Peck's Final Stage of Development
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Piaget's Cognitive Theory
- Children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through 4 stages of cognitive development
- Two processes underlie this cognitive construction: organization and adaptation
- Two kinds of adaptation: assimilation (incorporate new info into existing knowledge) and accommodation (adjust to the new info)
- Schema: representation in the mind of a set of perceptions/ideas/actions that go together
- Conservation: objects stay the same even when they look different (e.g. volume)
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Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensori-motor (birth-2): differentiates self from objects, aacts intentionally, achieves object permanence
- Pre-Operational (2-7): Language, thinking still egocentric, groups items by a single feature, believes in animism (inanimate objects have lifelike qualities)
- Concrete Operational (7-11): logical thought, conservation of number, mass and weight, ckassifies objects by several features and can order items
- Formal Operational (11+): can test hypothesis systematically, concerned with hypothetical, the future and ideological problems
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
- Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
- No stages
- Believed that cognitive process was facilitated by language development and occured in a social context
- Language development:
- Social speech (0-3): aimed at controlling the actions of others in the environment
- Egocentric (3-7): talk out loud to guide their own actions
- Private/inner speech (7+): internalized thoughts that guide own behavior
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Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
- ZPD: Gap between what children are able to learn on their own and what they are potentially able to learn with help
- Scaffolding: Supports that must be put in place to help children learn in order to reach their potential
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Who is the founder of classical conditioning, and what is it?
- Ivan Pavlov
- A learning theory
- Learning process that occures through associations between an envionemental stimulus and a naturally occuring stimulus
- Utilizes US (UCS), CS, UR, CR
- Part of all forms of animal training
- Helps form good habits and beak bad ones
- In education, phobias and anxiety (e.g. math anxiety, school phobia), candy for right answers
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US/CS
UR/CR
- Unconditioned stimulus: unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response, e.g. smell of food (In Pavlov, meat - in the US, we eat a lot of meat)
- Unconditioned Response: occurs naturally in response to the US, e.g. hunger pains (In Pavlov, salivating)
- Conditioned Stimulus: Neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the US, comes to trigger a CR (Pavlov: bell)
- Conditioned Response: learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (Pavlov: salivation)
- Ideal time b/w CS and US: .5 seconds
- Delay conditioning: CS us delayed until the US occurs
- Trace conditioning: CS will terminate prior to onset of the US.
- Higher order conditioning: When a new stimulus (e.g. a light) is paired with the CS (bell) and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS
- Experimental neurosis: Emotional disturbance b/c it is not possible to distinguish b/w US's.
- Respondent behavior deals with reflexes
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What are the 4 processes underlying classical conditioning?
- Acquisition: initial learning of the conditioned response (dog learning to salivate at bell)
- Extinction: elimination of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS (bell w/o food, dog will eventually stop salivating)
- Generalization (aka second order conditioning): After an animal has learned a CR to one stimulus, it may also respond to similar stimuli w/o further training (e.g. similiar bells)
- Discrimination (aka stimulus differentiation): learns to produce a CR to one stimulus but not another stimulus that is similar (a horn won't work)
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Who else practiced classical conditioning?
- John Watson: Little Albert, kid+white rat
- Joseph Wolpe: systematic densitization,
- reciprocal inhibition: a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneiously (e.g. relaxed and anxiou)
- Counterconditioning: a strong pleasant stimulus is paired with a weak aversive stimulus
- Flooding
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Who is the founder of operant conditioning, and what is it?
- B.F. Skinner (also Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect)
- a learning theory
- Also called instrumental learning
- A response is either strengthened or diminished because of the consequence that follows
- Changes in behavior are the result of an ind's response to stimuli that occur in the environment
- Applied in clinical setting, teaching, instructional development
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Reinforcement and Punishment
- Positive reinforcement: adding something, behavior increases
- Negative reinforcement: taking something away, behavior increases
- Punishment: behavior decreases temporarily
- Premack principle: an efficient reinforcer is what the client likes to do.
- Primary reinforcers: satisfy a primary need (e.g. food, rest)
- Secondary reinforcers: anything that becomes associated with a primary need, e.g. money
- Back-up reinforcers: an item or activity which can be purchased using tokens
- ratio scheules: every nth time
- (lead to quickest acquisition of response)
- variable ratio: averages every nth time; high response, slowest to become extinct
- fixed interval: every X minutes; low rates of response
- variable interbal: varied times, maximum response rates
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Social Learning Theory
- Albert Bandura
- People learn through observation, imitation and modeling
- Effective modeling has four components: attention, retentoin, reproduction and motivation
- Modeling is more effective is observers and models are of similar demo or have positive interpersonal attributes
- Self efficacy: individual's confidence in self to perform a given task/behavior
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Dollard and Miller Approach (Social Learning)
- John Dollard and Neal Miller
- Drive/incentive theorists
- Believed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences
- Habits: predictable behavior, reduce primary and secondary drives
- Primary Drives: innate drives (thirst, hunger)
- Secondary Drives: learned drives (parental approval)
- Miller and Banuazizi showed that by using rewards rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contractions
- First studies which demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to contro autonomic responses
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What are Dollard and Miller's 3 Conflict Types
- approach-approach: two positive choices, but only one can be chosen (ice cream or brownie)
- approach-avoidance: one wants something appealing, but fears being punished for obtaining it (e.g. fearing rejection for a proposed date)
- avoidance-avoidance: lose-lose situation
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Types of Aging
- Biological aging: involves how body functions and changes over time
- Anabolism: body building to peak potential
- Catabolism: body's slow deterioration from peak
- Psychological aging: one's perception of personal age
- Social aging: how one's chronological age is affected by societal and cultural context and is effected by vocation and SES.
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Central Nervous System
- Hindbrain: Life maintenance and survival functions
- Medulla oblongata: regulates heart and breathing
- Cerebellum: regulates balance
- Pons: connects left and right cerebellum
- Reticular activating system: regulates arousal and attention
- Midbrain: connects hindbrain and forebrain. Controls eye muscles, relays auditory and visual info to the brain's centers for higher level thinking
- Forebrain: responsible for higher order behavior and conscious thought.
- Cerebrum consists of:
- left hemisphere:
controls right side of body, language and writing, logical thought - right hemisphere: controls left side of body, muscle abilities, imagination, emotional expression
- corpus callosium: nerve cells that connect the two hemispheres, and integrate cognitive, emotional and bodily functions
- Cerebral Cortex: Covers the two hemispheres, memory, concentration, problem-solving abilities, muscle coordination. 4 lobes:
- Occiptal lobe - helps brain interpret sensory info through the eyes
- Parietal lobe - Controls spatial reasoning and sense of touch
- Temporal lobe - Responsible for hearing and storage of permanent memory
- Frontal lobe - Regulates sense of smell, body control, and movement
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Genetic Disorders
- Autosomal diseases: genetic disorders that involve a chromosome other than the sex chromosome. Examples:
- Phenylketonuria: inability to process phenylanine. Leads to damage of CNS.
- Sickle Cell Anemia: causes abnormal shaping of red blood cells leading to oxygen deprivation, pain, tissue damage, anemia, and pnemonia. 50% die by age 20. 1 in 500 AA births.
- Tay-Sachs Disease: inability to metabolize fatty substances in neural tissues, leads to degeneration of CNS. No treatment, Death by age 4 typical. 1 in 3500 births to Jews and Euros.
- X-linked diseases: passed on by maternal X-chromosome to males. Examples: Male pattern baldness, hemophilia
- Sex Chromosomal Diseases: genetic anomaly on the sex-determining pair of chromosomes. Examples:
- Turner syndrome: All or part of the second X chromosome is missing. 1/5,000 female births. Underdeveloped ovaries, incomplete sexual development at puberty, short, webbed neck, impaired spacial intelligence.
- Klinefelter's syndrome: An extra X chromosome on the XY pair. 1/1000 male births. Unusually tall, high amount of body fat, incomplete sex dev at puberty, usually sterile.
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Cognition and memory
- Sensory memory (trace memory): all environmental stimuli to which one is exposed at any given moment in time
- Short term memory
- Long term memory
- echoic storage: auditory information
- iconic storage: visual information
- Yekes-Dodson law: memory and performance are optimized at a moderate state of arousal
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Why do people forget?
- Retrieval theory: info is held in long-term storage forever, but we often have insufficient cues to retrieve the information
- Decay of memory theory: traces of info in memory decay over time, and eventually disappears forever
- Interference theory: learned info is inhibited by other learning experiences
- Retroactive inhibition: new info interferes with previously learned info
- Proactive inhibition: Old info interferes with newly learned info
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More about cognitive development
- Cognitive dissonance: conflict between old info and new info
- Confirmatory bias: likelihood to screen for info that matches previously held beliefs
- imaginary audience: adolescent belief that everyone is watching
- Personal table: adolescent belief of absolute uniqueness (things only happen to others)
- Cognitive abilities decline after age 70
- Creativity involves convergent and divergent thinking
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What is attribution theory?
- Fritz Heider
- Explains why things happen. People assign attributes (reasons) to outcomes and events
- Stability: stable causes result in hopelessness, unstable causes lead to hope
- Locus: internal foci-take responsibility, external attributions lie outside the individual
- Control: Controllable vs. uncontrollable
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Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence
- Raymond Cattell
- Crystallized: includes verbal and math capabilities and experiences that are learned
- Fluid: includes nonverbal problem solving and pattern recognition
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Ego Development Theory of Jane Loevinger
- Ego development stage theory that explained human personality developmental progression and fixation:
- 1. Presocial stage
- 2. Symbiotic Stage: diff self from others
- 3. Impulsive stage
- 4. Self-protective stage: self-control, rule governed behavior
- 5. Conformist stage: obey group rules, strive for acceptance by family
- 6. Self-awareness/self-conscious stage: strive for stability and maturity
- 7. Conscientiousness: internalize rules, morality
- 8. Individualistic
- 9. Autonomous
- 10. Integrated: consolidated identity
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Maslow's Humanistic Theory
- Heirarchy of needs
- Physiological
- Safety
- Belonging
- Esteem
- Self Actualization
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What are ethological theories?
They emphasize the role of instinct in human development and use naturalistic observations
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Who is Konrad Lorenz?
- Experiments on imprinting, process by which a duck attaches to the first moving object it encounters shortly after hatching.
- Irreversible
- Sensitive/Critical Period
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John Bowlby
- decribes infants as being born with an innate potential for attachment
- failure to attach to a caregiver early in life will affect trust and intimacy in later development
- Three stages of infants exposed to prolonged separations:
- Protest: refuses to accept separation and cries
- Despair: seems to give up hope and withdraws
- Detachment: accepts attention from others; disinterested when caregiver reemerges
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Mary Ainsworth
- Four patterns of attachment
- Securely attached
- Avoidantly attached:
withdrawn behaviors, detached from caregiver - Ambivalently attached: clinging behavior, protests separation
- Disorganized attachment: little emotion at separation and mostly confusion at reunion
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Harry Harlow and his monkeys
- Rhesus monkeys in cages with wire surrogate mothers
- One with a bottle for food
- One with a terrycloth covering for comfotr
- Preferred to be around comfort monkey
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Marcia's 4 Types of Identity
- Identity Achievement: commiting to goals and taking a course of action towards goals
- Identity Moratorium: continuing to take in info without agreeing on goals or a course of action
- Identity Foreclosure: others have determined the goals and teen follows, unquestioning
- Identity Diffusion: teens procrastinate or become so confused that they don't even take info in.
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Gender Role Development
- Social learning theory: children learn through observation and differential reinforcement from same-sex caregivers
- Cognitive-development models: As children develop high levels of cognition, they become aware of their own gender identity
- Biological theories: hormones
- Psychoanalytic theory: children emulate parents, Oedipus and Electra complexes
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Social Play
- Parten
- Nonsocial activities: play by self, won't play with another child in same activity
- Parallel Play: play near each other but not with each other
- Associative Play: separate activities, but interact with one another
- Cooperative Play: play with each other
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Theories of Aging
- disengagement (detachment) theory: withdrawal from the social system is a natural process
- activity theory: as people age they prefer to remain socially active in order to resist self pre-occupation and maintain social relationships
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Kubler-Ross Stages of Grief
- Shock and denial
- Anger
- Bargaining and Guilt
- Hopelessness/Depression
- Acceptance
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Kohlberg and Moral Development
- 3 levels, 2 stages each; sometimes called a 6 stage theory
- Level 1: Preconventional Level: little awareness of socially acceptable moral behavior and follow rules to avoid punishment
- Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment: Weak must please the strong.
- Stage 2: Instrumental Hedonism: Pleasure is a motivator, self-serving
- Level 2: Conventional Level: familial or societal authority is recognized; follow rules to avoid social disapproval
- Stage 3: Good Boy, Good Girl: Try to please everyone, want to be seen as good, empathy starts to develop
- Stage 4: Law and Order: Rules are the rules.
- Level 3: Postconventional Level: Choose moral codes to live by. Behave in a way that respects the dignity of all people.
- Stage 5: Social/Moral Contract and System of Laws: general individual rights and standards agreed upon by society
- Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles:
moral behavior determined by conscience.
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Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development
- feminist; thought Kohlberg's theory was biased against females
- Three stage theory:
- Orientation to individual survival: focus on self
- Goodness as Self-Sacrifice: good is doing for others
- Morality of Nonviolence: equilibrium between individual needs and social caring ideal.
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Other approaches to moral development
- Piaget: based on cognitive awareness: premoral stage, moral realism stage, moral relativism stage
- Freud: morality results from unconscious, irrational motives perpetuated by the id, being reconciled by the superefo, to keep the ego from becoming conscious
- Behavioral: environmental influence and focuses on the rewards or punishments associated with moral actions
- Social learning: important of imitation and vicarious learning
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Life Span Theories: Gessell
- Genetic unfolding of characteristics and milestones with only slight environmental influence
- Developed the Gessell scales often used by doctors when considering development (stacking blocks, how many words, etc.)
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Robert Havighurst's Developmental Task Approach
- Proposed a series of developmental tasks that humans achieve as they grow and develop from infancy to late adulthood
- Sense of self and mastery improves as tasks achieved
- e.g. learning to talk, starting a family, adjusting to death of spouse
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Roger Gould's Adult Developmental Theory
Adults strove to eliminate false assumptions (protective devices) usually relating to parental dependency, that restricted young and middle adult development.
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Robret Peck's Phase Theory of Adult Development
- Reworked Erikson's last 2 stages
- Middle Adults:
- Valuing Wisdom vs. Valuing Physical Prowess:
- Socializing vs. Sexualizing: sex replaced by empathy, understanding and compassion
- Cathetic Flexibility vs. Cathetic Impoverishment: must learn to shift emotional energies from one person to another to deal with loss.
- Phases of Retirement Years
- Differentiation vs. Role Preoccupation: redefining worth in something other than work roles.
- Body Transcendence vs. Body Preoccupation: coping with declining physical well-being
- Ego Transcendence vs. Ego Preoccupation: recognizing that death is inevitable but one has made contributions to the future
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Daniel Levinson's Adult Male Development Theory
- Adult males create life structures (periods of stability and growth) alternating with transitional periods
- Novice Phase:
- Early adult transition (17-22)
- Entering the adult world (22-28)
- Age 30 transition
The Settling Down Phase - Early Settling Down
- Becoming One's Own Man (BOOM)
Midlife Transition (40-45) - Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50)
- Age 50 Transition
- Building a Second Middle Adult Structure (55-60)
- Late Adult Transition (60-65)
- Late Adulthood (65+)
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Crisis
- Eric Lindemann, Gerard Caplan, Hill
- Types of crisis:
- developmental: normal life experiences
- environmental: natural or human caused events effecting multiple people
- existential crisis: who am I?
- situational crisis: caused by precipitating event that is shocking and traumatic, e.g. rape
- psychiatric crisis: caused by mental health or substance abuse problems
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DSM-IV
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Axis I: Clinical disorders and other conditions (e.g. ADHD, Generalized Anxiety Disorder)
- Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation
- Axis III: General Medical Conditions
- Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems (e.g. unemployment, homelessness)
- Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)
GAF: 0 or 1 to 100. 100 is best functioning. reported for current functioning and highest level within the last year.
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