Human Growth

• Oral: Birth-1.5 years
• Anal: 1.5-3 years
• Phallic: 3-6 years
• Latency: 6-puberty
• Genital: puberty on

• Neo-Freudian
• Believes social interaction drives human behavior and personality development
• Epigenetic Principle: we develop through predetermined unfolding of our personalities in 8 stages

• Trust vs. Mistrust (age 0-1): Child learns environment can supply basic needs
• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (ages 1-3): Child develops sense of free will and a sense of regret for inappropriate use of self-control
• Initiative vs. Guilt (ages 3-6): Child learns to begin action, to explore and feel remorse for actions
• Industry vs. Inferiority (ages 7-12): child learns to do things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12-18): Adolescent develops sense of self
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s): Develops ability to give and receive love. Makes long term commitment to relationships
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (late 20's to 50's): Adult develops interest in guiding the next generation
• Ego Integrity vs. Despair (50s and beyond): Develops acceptance of life as it was lived and important of people in life

• Children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through 4 stages of cognitive development
• Two processes underlie this cognitive construction: organization and adaptation
• Two kinds of adaptation: assimilation (incorporate new info into existing knowledge) and accommodation (adjust to the new info)
• Schema: representation in the mind of a set of perceptions/ideas/actions that go together
• Conservation: objects stay the same even when they look different (e.g. volume)

• Sensori-motor (birth-2): differentiates self from objects, aacts intentionally, achieves object permanence
• Pre-Operational (2-7): Language, thinking still egocentric, groups items by a single feature, believes in animism (inanimate objects have lifelike qualities)
• Concrete Operational (7-11): logical thought, conservation of number, mass and weight, ckassifies objects by several features and can order items
• Formal Operational (11+): can test hypothesis systematically, concerned with hypothetical, the future and ideological problems

• Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
• No stages
• Believed that cognitive process was facilitated by language development and occured in a social context
• Language development:
• Social speech (0-3): aimed at controlling the actions of others in the environment
• Egocentric (3-7): talk out loud to guide their own actions
• Private/inner speech (7+): internalized thoughts that guide own behavior

• ZPD: Gap between what children are able to learn on their own and what they are potentially able to learn with help
• Scaffolding: Supports that must be put in place to help children learn in order to reach their potential

• Ivan Pavlov
• A learning theory
• Learning process that occures through associations between an envionemental stimulus and a naturally occuring stimulus
• Utilizes US (UCS), CS, UR, CR
• Part of all forms of animal training
• Helps form good habits and beak bad ones
• In education, phobias and anxiety (e.g. math anxiety, school phobia), candy for right answers

• Unconditioned stimulus: unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response, e.g. smell of food (In Pavlov, meat - in the US, we eat a lot of meat)
• Unconditioned Response: occurs naturally in response to the US, e.g. hunger pains (In Pavlov, salivating)
• Conditioned Stimulus: Neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the US, comes to trigger a CR (Pavlov: bell)
• Conditioned Response: learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (Pavlov: salivation)
• Ideal time b/w CS and US: .5 seconds
• Delay conditioning: CS us delayed until the US occurs
• Trace conditioning: CS will terminate prior to onset of the US.
• Higher order conditioning: When a new stimulus (e.g. a light) is paired with the CS (bell) and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS
• Experimental neurosis: Emotional disturbance b/c it is not possible to distinguish b/w US's.
• Respondent behavior deals with reflexes

• Acquisition: initial learning of the conditioned response (dog learning to salivate at bell)
• Extinction: elimination of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS (bell w/o food, dog will eventually stop salivating)
• Generalization (aka second order conditioning): After an animal has learned a CR to one stimulus, it may also respond to similar stimuli w/o further training (e.g. similiar bells)
• Discrimination (aka stimulus differentiation): learns to produce a CR to one stimulus but not another stimulus that is similar (a horn won't work)

• John Watson: Little Albert, kid+white rat
• Joseph Wolpe: systematic densitization,
• reciprocal inhibition: a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneiously (e.g. relaxed and anxiou)
• Counterconditioning: a strong pleasant stimulus is paired with a weak aversive stimulus
• Flooding

• B.F. Skinner (also Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect)
• a learning theory
• Also called instrumental learning
• A response is either strengthened or diminished because of the consequence that follows
• Changes in behavior are the result of an ind's response to stimuli that occur in the environment
• Applied in clinical setting, teaching, instructional development

• Positive reinforcement: adding something, behavior increases
• Negative reinforcement: taking something away, behavior increases
• Punishment: behavior decreases temporarily
• Premack principle: an efficient reinforcer is what the client likes to do.
• Primary reinforcers: satisfy a primary need (e.g. food, rest)
• Secondary reinforcers: anything that becomes associated with a primary need, e.g. money
• Back-up reinforcers: an item or activity which can be purchased using tokens
• ratio scheules: every nth time
• (lead to quickest acquisition of response)
• variable ratio: averages every nth time; high response, slowest to become extinct
• fixed interval: every X minutes; low rates of response
• variable interbal: varied times, maximum response rates

• Albert Bandura
• People learn through observation, imitation and modeling
• Effective modeling has four components: attention, retentoin, reproduction and motivation
• Modeling is more effective is observers and models are of similar demo or have positive interpersonal attributes
• Self efficacy: individual's confidence in self to perform a given task/behavior

• John Dollard and Neal Miller
• Drive/incentive theorists
• Believed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences
• Habits: predictable behavior, reduce primary and secondary drives
• Primary Drives: innate drives (thirst, hunger)
• Secondary Drives: learned drives (parental approval)
• Miller and Banuazizi showed that by using rewards rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contractions
• First studies which demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to contro autonomic responses

• approach-approach: two positive choices, but only one can be chosen (ice cream or brownie)
• approach-avoidance: one wants something appealing, but fears being punished for obtaining it (e.g. fearing rejection for a proposed date)
• avoidance-avoidance: lose-lose situation

• Biological aging: involves how body functions and changes over time
• Anabolism: body building to peak potential
• Catabolism: body's slow deterioration from peak
• Psychological aging: one's perception of personal age
• Social aging: how one's chronological age is affected by societal and cultural context and is effected by vocation and SES.

• Hindbrain: Life maintenance and survival functions
• Medulla oblongata: regulates heart and breathing
• Cerebellum: regulates balance
• Pons: connects left and right cerebellum
• Reticular activating system: regulates arousal and attention
• Midbrain: connects hindbrain and forebrain. Controls eye muscles, relays auditory and visual info to the brain's centers for higher level thinking
• Forebrain: responsible for higher order behavior and conscious thought.
• Cerebrum consists of:
• left hemisphere: controls right side of body, language and writing, logical thought
• right hemisphere: controls left side of body, muscle abilities, imagination, emotional expression
• corpus callosium: nerve cells that connect the two hemispheres, and integrate cognitive, emotional and bodily functions
• Cerebral Cortex: Covers the two hemispheres, memory, concentration, problem-solving abilities, muscle coordination. 4 lobes:
• Occiptal lobe - helps brain interpret sensory info through the eyes
• Parietal lobe - Controls spatial reasoning and sense of touch
• Temporal lobe - Responsible for hearing and storage of permanent memory
• Frontal lobe - Regulates sense of smell, body control, and movement

• Autosomal diseases: genetic disorders that involve a chromosome other than the sex chromosome. Examples:
• Phenylketonuria: inability to process phenylanine. Leads to damage of CNS.
• Sickle Cell Anemia: causes abnormal shaping of red blood cells leading to oxygen deprivation, pain, tissue damage, anemia, and pnemonia. 50% die by age 20. 1 in 500 AA births.
• Tay-Sachs Disease: inability to metabolize fatty substances in neural tissues, leads to degeneration of CNS. No treatment, Death by age 4 typical. 1 in 3500 births to Jews and Euros.
• X-linked diseases: passed on by maternal X-chromosome to males. Examples: Male pattern baldness, hemophilia
• Sex Chromosomal Diseases: genetic anomaly on the sex-determining pair of chromosomes. Examples:
• Turner syndrome: All or part of the second X chromosome is missing. 1/5,000 female births. Underdeveloped ovaries, incomplete sexual development at puberty, short, webbed neck, impaired spacial intelligence.
• Klinefelter's syndrome: An extra X chromosome on the XY pair. 1/1000 male births. Unusually tall, high amount of body fat, incomplete sex dev at puberty, usually sterile.

• Sensory memory (trace memory): all environmental stimuli to which one is exposed at any given moment in time
• Short term memory
• Long term memory
• echoic storage: auditory information
• iconic storage: visual information
• Yekes-Dodson law: memory and performance are optimized at a moderate state of arousal

• Retrieval theory: info is held in long-term storage forever, but we often have insufficient cues to retrieve the information
• Decay of memory theory: traces of info in memory decay over time, and eventually disappears forever
• Interference theory: learned info is inhibited by other learning experiences
• Retroactive inhibition: new info interferes with previously learned info
• Proactive inhibition: Old info interferes with newly learned info

• Cognitive dissonance: conflict between old info and new info
• Confirmatory bias: likelihood to screen for info that matches previously held beliefs
• imaginary audience: adolescent belief that everyone is watching
• Personal table: adolescent belief of absolute uniqueness (things only happen to others)
• Cognitive abilities decline after age 70
• Creativity involves convergent and divergent thinking

• Fritz Heider
• Explains why things happen. People assign attributes (reasons) to outcomes and events
• Stability: stable causes result in hopelessness, unstable causes lead to hope
• Locus: internal foci-take responsibility, external attributions lie outside the individual
• Control: Controllable vs. uncontrollable

• Raymond Cattell
• Crystallized: includes verbal and math capabilities and experiences that are learned
• Fluid: includes nonverbal problem solving and pattern recognition

• Ego development stage theory that explained human personality developmental progression and fixation:
• 1. Presocial stage
• 2. Symbiotic Stage: diff self from others
• 3. Impulsive stage
• 4. Self-protective stage: self-control, rule governed behavior
• 5. Conformist stage: obey group rules, strive for acceptance by family
• 6. Self-awareness/self-conscious stage: strive for stability and maturity
• 7. Conscientiousness: internalize rules, morality
• 8. Individualistic
• 9. Autonomous
• 10. Integrated: consolidated identity

• Heirarchy of needs
• Physiological
• Safety
• Belonging
• Esteem
• Self Actualization

They emphasize the role of instinct in human development and use naturalistic observations

• Experiments on imprinting, process by which a duck attaches to the first moving object it encounters shortly after hatching.
• Irreversible
• Sensitive/Critical Period

• decribes infants as being born with an innate potential for attachment
• failure to attach to a caregiver early in life will affect trust and intimacy in later development
• Three stages of infants exposed to prolonged separations:
• Protest: refuses to accept separation and cries
• Despair: seems to give up hope and withdraws
• Detachment: accepts attention from others; disinterested when caregiver reemerges

• Four patterns of attachment
• Securely attached
• Avoidantly attached: withdrawn behaviors, detached from caregiver
• Ambivalently attached: clinging behavior, protests separation
• Disorganized attachment: little emotion at separation and mostly confusion at reunion

• Rhesus monkeys in cages with wire surrogate mothers
• One with a bottle for food
• One with a terrycloth covering for comfotr
• Preferred to be around comfort monkey

• Identity Achievement: commiting to goals and taking a course of action towards goals
• Identity Moratorium: continuing to take in info without agreeing on goals or a course of action
• Identity Foreclosure: others have determined the goals and teen follows, unquestioning
• Identity Diffusion: teens procrastinate or become so confused that they don't even take info in.

• Social learning theory: children learn through observation and differential reinforcement from same-sex caregivers
• Cognitive-development models: As children develop high levels of cognition, they become aware of their own gender identity
• Biological theories: hormones
• Psychoanalytic theory: children emulate parents, Oedipus and Electra complexes

• Parten
• Nonsocial activities: play by self, won't play with another child in same activity
• Parallel Play: play near each other but not with each other
• Associative Play: separate activities, but interact with one another
• Cooperative Play: play with each other

• disengagement (detachment) theory: withdrawal from the social system is a natural process
• activity theory: as people age they prefer to remain socially active in order to resist self pre-occupation and maintain social relationships

• Shock and denial
• Anger
• Bargaining and Guilt
• Hopelessness/Depression
• Acceptance

• 3 levels, 2 stages each; sometimes called a 6 stage theory
• Level 1: Preconventional Level: little awareness of socially acceptable moral behavior and follow rules to avoid punishment
• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment: Weak must please the strong.
• Stage 2: Instrumental Hedonism: Pleasure is a motivator, self-serving
• Level 2: Conventional Level: familial or societal authority is recognized; follow rules to avoid social disapproval
• Stage 3: Good Boy, Good Girl: Try to please everyone, want to be seen as good, empathy starts to develop
• Stage 4: Law and Order: Rules are the rules.
• Level 3: Postconventional Level: Choose moral codes to live by. Behave in a way that respects the dignity of all people.
• Stage 5: Social/Moral Contract and System of Laws: general individual rights and standards agreed upon by society
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: moral behavior determined by conscience.

• feminist; thought Kohlberg's theory was biased against females
• Three stage theory:
• Orientation to individual survival: focus on self
• Goodness as Self-Sacrifice: good is doing for others
• Morality of Nonviolence: equilibrium between individual needs and social caring ideal.

• Piaget: based on cognitive awareness: premoral stage, moral realism stage, moral relativism stage
• Freud: morality results from unconscious, irrational motives perpetuated by the id, being reconciled by the superefo, to keep the ego from becoming conscious
• Behavioral: environmental influence and focuses on the rewards or punishments associated with moral actions
• Social learning: important of imitation and vicarious learning

• Genetic unfolding of characteristics and milestones with only slight environmental influence
• Developed the Gessell scales often used by doctors when considering development (stacking blocks, how many words, etc.)

• Proposed a series of developmental tasks that humans achieve as they grow and develop from infancy to late adulthood
• Sense of self and mastery improves as tasks achieved
• e.g. learning to talk, starting a family, adjusting to death of spouse

Adults strove to eliminate false assumptions (protective devices) usually relating to parental dependency, that restricted young and middle adult development.

• Reworked Erikson's last 2 stages
• Middle Adults:
• Valuing Wisdom vs. Valuing Physical Prowess:
• Socializing vs. Sexualizing: sex replaced by empathy, understanding and compassion
• Cathetic Flexibility vs. Cathetic Impoverishment: must learn to shift emotional energies from one person to another to deal with loss.
• Phases of Retirement Years
• Differentiation vs. Role Preoccupation: redefining worth in something other than work roles.
• Body Transcendence vs. Body Preoccupation: coping with declining physical well-being
• Ego Transcendence vs. Ego Preoccupation: recognizing that death is inevitable but one has made contributions to the future

• Adult males create life structures (periods of stability and growth) alternating with transitional periods
• Novice Phase:
• Early adult transition (17-22)
• Entering the adult world (22-28)
• Age 30 transition
• The Settling Down Phase
• Early Settling Down
• Becoming One's Own Man (BOOM)
• Midlife Transition (40-45)
• Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50)
• Age 50 Transition
• Building a Second Middle Adult Structure (55-60)
• Late Adult Transition (60-65)
• Late Adulthood (65+)

• Eric Lindemann, Gerard Caplan, Hill
• Types of crisis:
• developmental: normal life experiences
• environmental: natural or human caused events effecting multiple people
• existential crisis: who am I?
• situational crisis: caused by precipitating event that is shocking and traumatic, e.g. rape
• psychiatric crisis: caused by mental health or substance abuse problems

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
• Axis I: Clinical disorders and other conditions (e.g. ADHD, Generalized Anxiety Disorder)
• Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation
• Axis III: General Medical Conditions
• Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems (e.g. unemployment, homelessness)
• Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

GAF: 0 or 1 to 100. 100 is best functioning. reported for current functioning and highest level within the last year.