Histo- Premidterm

• anisocytosis: size
• poikilocytosis: shape
• aplastic anemia: bone marrow destruction
• Hemolytic anemia: membrane defect
• hemmorhagic anemia: ulcer
• pernicious anemai: b12
• thalessemia: excess Hb
• sickle cell: glutamic acid > valine
• hereditary spherocytosis: hemolyse in spleen
• acute leukemia: overproduction of WBC
• chronic leukemia: nondestruction/accum of WBC

• A- male- factor 8
• B- male- factor 9
• C- m &f- factor 11

• initial- yolk sac
• middle- liver (some spleen)
• toward birth- exclusively bone marrow

• neutrophils (70%)
• lymphocytes (30%)
• monocytes (5%)
• eosinophils (2%)
• basophils (.5%)

the antigen the person posesses

• kartenger: dynein
• bollous pemphigoid: collagen 17 destruction @ BM
• atrophy: decreased size
• hypertrophy: increased size
• hyperplasia: increased #
• metaplasia: epithelial change (barrets, bronchitis, smoking)
• dysplasia: proliferation, no maturation
• neoiplasm: cancer (unregulated cell growth)
• carcinoma: epithelium tumor
• adenoma: gland tumor
• lipoma: fatty tumor
• EDS: alpha chains
• fibrosis: excessive scarring
• scurvy: vitamin C deficinet
• Marfans: fibrillin 1
• osteoarthritis: eburnation
• rickets: mineral defecit (Vit D in kids)
• osteopetrosis: osteblasts
• osteogenesis imperfecta: collagen I excess
• Osteoperosis: deficient GH or estrogen

• microtuble associating proteins
• dynein, kinesin, dynamin

• duchenne: dystrophin (links actin to external lamina)
• mysthenia gravis: Ach receptor antibodies block receptors
• bronchial asthma: thick smooth muscle, remodelling of blood vessels
• multiple sclerosis: CNS demyelination
• Parkinsons: domapin, lewy body
• hiatus hernia: stomach through esophageal hiatus
• hirschprungs: congenital megacolon (neural crest cells)
• Caput medusa: portal hypertension
• hemorrhoids: anus
• emphysemia: destruction of elastic lung fubers
• Wislons disease: cu accumulation in eye, liver, brain
• Cirrhosis: irreversible liver fibrosis

• stains proteins pink
• acidophilc
• AE

• stains nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) blue
• basophillic
• HB

stains carbohydrtes pink

• nervous
• skeletal
• connective
• epithelial

• all simple
• -columnar
• cuboidal
• psuedostratified

stratified squamous, keratinized

cervix, vagina, mucus membrane, esophagus

stratified cuboidal

• "umbrella cells"
• UT, testes

• microvilli- short, separate
• stereocillia- branched

9+2 microtubule arrangement

• Tight Jnx
• occludens/ claudins

• adherent jnx
• viniculin, actin
• cams (cell adhesion molecules)
• fascia adherens- cardiac intercalated disks

• Desmosomes
• desmoplakins/cadherins

• Gap jnx (nexus)
• 6 connexins = connexonHe

• @ basal lamina
• integrins , collagen 17

basal lamina + reticular lamina

regeneration guide

• merocrine- release in small vesicles w no loss of cytoplasm
• "merely"
• ex: goblet cells

• release in large vessicles w slight loss of cytoplasm
• ex: prostate glands

• release vessicle and destroys entire cell
• ex: sebaceous hair follicle

• dysplasia: abnormal cell growth
• aplasia: no cell growth
• metaplasia: replacement of one tissue with another
• neoplasia: new growth (tumor, carcinoma etc)

• Stroma: surroundings, supportive
• Parenchyma: Performs cell function

• 1- tissue fluid
• 2- ground substance: GAGs, proteoglycan, glyiproteins
• 3- fibers: elastin, collagin, reticular

• collagen type III
• found in organs with large volume change
• agyrophilic, PAS positive

fibroblasts

• unilocular: fat, white, single lipid drops, energy storage
• multilocular: small, brown, multiple lipid drops, heat production

• clock face nuclei
• negative golgi
• (derive from B lympocytes)

impregnation with silver salts and made visible w reducing agent

• Preprocollagen: (nucleus)
• Procollagen: formed after translation, hydroxylation, glycosylation (RER)
• Tropocollagen: cleaves off the propeptides
• collagen: forms when lysl oxidase forms cross links b/w tropocollagen fibers

• orecin
• resourcin
• verhoffs

• I: bones, skin
• II: hyalin = cartillage, notochord
• III: reticular = organs and blood vessels

• parallel collagen fibers
• tendons, cornea

ligamentum flavum, vocal ligaments, suspensory ligaments of penis

excess collagen promotes scar tissue to rise outside the wound boundary

• Lipoma: benign tumor in fatty tissue
• Liposarcoma: malignant tumor in fatty tissue

elastic tissue

• plasma: contains clotting factor
• serum: no clotting factors

lymphocyte

Rh- mother, Rh+ child ---> anti D blood

movement of cells through endothelial/epithelial tissue

• males: 4.1-6 x 10⁶
• females: 3.9-5.5 x 10⁶

• proerythrblast
• basophilic e
• polychromatic e
• orthochromatic e
• reticulocyte
• erythrocyte

• myeloblast
• promyeloblast

• myelocyte
• metamyelocyte

band/stab cell

• megakaryoblast
• megakaryocyte
• thrombus
• platelet

• too many WBCs are produced, that RBCs dont have space to produce
• increase in neutrophilic metamyelocytes

necessary for Koaggulation

plasmodium infection (mosquitos)

• protein synthesized in liver
• maintains COP to transport metabolites

comes from plasma cells to produce Igs

Gamma - Immunoglobbins

membrane folding

when DNA compacts to such a degree that it is not used (heterochromatin)

nuclear division without cell division

cell division

cell division vs cell reduction

• longest: G1 (G is tall)
• shortest: M1

• early aging
• unstable lamin A (part of nuclear envelope)
• telomere damage

• telomere damage
• ???

• retinoblastoma gene
• phosphorylated = inactive = cell cycle cannot be supressed (BAD!)
• phosphorylated via CDK4-Cyclin D

• in cancer cells p53 is mutated
• mutated p53 cannot innitate apoptosis of cancerous cells

complimetnary C5a + Leukatrine B4

• redness (rubor)
• heat (calor)
• pain (dolor)
• swelling (tumor)

inflammation of fallopian tubes

inflammation of subcutaneous tissue

when phagocytosis of an organism is promoted by coating of Igs

• contains pus filled w neutrophils
• caused by pyogenic bacteria

• forms transudate- accumulation of fluid w low plasma protein content
• ex: burning skin

complete restoration of normal tissue structure anf function

• acute: neutrophils
• chronic: lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells

• 9+2
• cilia, flagella, centrioles
• require MAP and tau proteins
• GTP - required for polymerization

majore MT organizing center

• made up of 2 centriOLES at right angles from each other
• 9 triplets x 1

binds to MTto prevent depolymerization

• 9+0
• hair cells in ear to detect balance

• dynein- retrogred transport (toward cell body)
• kinesin- antereograde (away from cell body)
• myosin- use ATP to move along actin

• fnx: maintain cell shape
• CYTOPLASMIC
• Keratin: epithelia
• Vimentin: CT, muscles, neuroglia [fmxs to attach nucleas to plasma membrane]
• --------Desmin: muscles
• -------Astroglial cells: glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP)
• neurofilaments: nerve cells

• NUCLEAR
• nuclear lamins (regulate transcription, attaches chromosome to nuclear envelope) - in all nucleated cells

• Psuedopodeum- protrusion of cell surface
• Lamillapodeum- membranous process during contraction
• Fillipodium- extends from lamillipodum to form focal adhesions

• Heat shock proteins
• prevent peptide from folding until completley syntehsized
• repairs denatured proteins, or Ubqiuinates them
• mitochondrial chapperones: unfold the protein to get it into mitochondria, refolds it once inside

trashcan for misfolded proteins, tagged by ubiquitin

proteoplasmic peptidase, follows the action of proteosome an make sure all Ub-tagged proteins are destroyed (and frees AA in the cytosol)

• supplies blood to cartillage
• outter cellular layer and
• chondrogenic layer: its inner cellular layer

• Type I cartillage
• NO perichondrium
• enthesis- site of attachment b/w ligament and tendon into bone
• pubic symphysis, IV disks, phalanges
• acidophilic
• parallel rows of chondrocytes

• Type II cartillage
• articular cartillage- only hyalin cartillage w/o perichondrium

• Type II cartillage + elastic fibers
• pina, auditory tubules, epiglottis

reservoir for ionized Ca2+ ions in skeletal muscles

H & I

large macromolecle (looks like a spring) that attaches b/w the Z line and myosin

attaches Z line to sarcolemma

regulates thin filament length during sarcomere assembly

• skeletal: @ AI Jnx
• cardiac: @ Z disk

T tubule w 2 adjacent terminal cisternae

• ?
• one thick filament surrounded by 6 thin filaments (hexagonal)

• Nerve impulse picked up by sarcolemma and conducted via T tubules
• Terminal Cisternae release Ca2+ via voltage gated channels
• Ca2+ binds to troponin
• troponin alters tropomyosin and reveals myosin binding site on actin
• ATP on myosin is hydrolyzed and myosin binds to actin
• power stroke- when phosphate released

• in skeletal muscle
• responsible for growth, healing, and regeneration of skeletal muscle

• SO- slow oxidative
• red fibers
• slow contracting
• long lasting, fatique resistent
• high in mitochondria and myoglobin

• FOG- fast oxidative glycolytic
• intermediate
• adaptive - aerobic or anaerobic

• FG- fast glycolytic
• white fibers
• quick to fatique
• glycogen rich
• quick, sudden efforts
• anaerobic

• mixture of I + IA
• uncommon

• central nucleus
• intercallated disks
• branching
• diad

buildup of old lysosomes

permanent sarcolemma invaginations in smooth muscle (similar to T tubules)

specialized supportive cells that help the nervous system to develop

RER + ribosomes + ribonucleoproteins

1 axon, multiple dendrites (MOTOR)

1 axon, 1 dendrite (INTERNEURON)

1 axon, cell body (SENSORY)

phagocytic CNS cells

• Shwann cells- PNS
• Oligodendrocytes- CNS

• Fibrous: in white matter between myelenated nerve fibers
• Protoplasmic: in gray matter , participates in metabolite exchange via blood supply for neurons

protects the CNS from fluctuating levels of electrolytes, hormones, and tissue metabolites circulating in the blood vessels

enlargement of head due to decreased absorption yet constant production of CSF

produce CSF

• Electrical: gap junctions (ex: heart)
• Chemical: motor end plate

• Pia mater- collagen, elastin
• Arachnoid mater- fibrous
• Dura- dense fibro,elastic

• vascular structure that produces CSF and lined by ependymal cells
• found in 3rd and 4th ventricle of brian
• contains no BBB

type of ependymal cell that forms "endfeet" on blood vessels and attach to each other via tight jnxs

• 1- axon enveloped by Shwann Cell
• 2- mesaxon forms- shwann cells make endge to edge contact as it wraps around
• 3- mesaxon continues to spiral and fuse forming and inner and outer mesaxon

• conducts impulses to smooth, cardiac, and glandular muscles
• sympathetic: thoracolumbar outflow (norepeinephrine)
• parasympathetic: craniosacral (Ach)

• PNS demylination
• ascending paralysis starting at feed radiating to trunk but does not cause nerve damage

• aka Lou Gehrigs disease
• progressive loss of motor neurons
• results in muscular atrophy

loss of dopamine secreting cells and increase in glial cells

• affects neuromuscular jnx
• impairs transmission of nerve impulses
• autoimmune attack of Ach receptors

adhesive glycoprotein of in ECM

surrounds lacunae, rich in proteoglycans

distant from chondrocytes, rich in collagen

clusters of chondrocytes

• interstitial- outward growth (length)
• appositional= inward growth (width)

Type II (elastic) replaced with Type I (fibro) with aging

• outter fibrous layer
• inner cellular layer: osteogenic layer

osteoCYTEs

• tones down blood calcium
• stimulates osteoblasts to build bone
• receptors on osteoclasts

osteoCLASTS

• aka spongy bone
• aka cancellous bone

bone marrow

perpendicular to Haversian canals and serves to connect them

• Epiphysis
• Metaphysis
• Diaphysis

• Primary: immature osteoid
• --low mineral content
• --high osteocyte content
• --irregular collagen bundles

• Secondary: mature bone
• --high mineral content
• --parallel arrangement of collagen
• --osteocytes in lacunae

• mesenchymal tissue > bone tissue
• just one primary ossification center
• ex: skull flatbones

• mesenchymal tissue > cartillage tissue> replaced by bone
• primary (diaphysis)
• ....and secondary (epiphhysis) ossification center
• ex: long/short bones

• chondrocytes hypertrophy @ bone collar
• primary ossification center forms -- blood supply to center diaphysis
• perichondrium becomes periosteum
• bone collar forms
• chondrocytes die, leaving behind bone marrow space
• osteoblasts form bone matrix on cartillage model
• growth, thickening towards epiphysis, resporption towards diaphysis

• Resting (reserve)
• proliferation (hyperplastic)
• hypertrophy (maturation)
• calcification
• ossification

acts on PTH

• arthritis- degredation of joints and articular cartillage
• gout- inflammation due to uric acid deposits in joints and soft tissue
• rheumatodi arthritis- synovitis

• acromegaly- overgrowth in adults
• gigantisism- overgrowth in kids

dwarfism (4'10)

Pseudostratified Columnar w Cilia

• secretion/absorption
• protection/barrier

• Oral cavity
• Vagina
• epidermis

• gallbladder
• GI tract

• carcinoma: neoplasia of epithelia
• adenoma: neoplasia of glands
• adenocarcinoma: neoplasia of gland originating from epithelia
• sarcoma: tumor of CT

• hemi: anchor intermediate filaments to BM
• focal adhesions: anchor actin to BM

• very long microvilli
• male reproductive system and inner ear

usually accompanies patients with Kartangers Syndrome

• 9+0 microtubules
• sensory transduction

• dense (regular/irregular)
• loose
• reticular
• elastic

adipose, blood, bone, cartillage

• mesenchymal
• mucosal

• Epimysium: covers entire muscle
• Perimysium: covers muscle fascile
• Endomysium: convers muscle fiber

If red fiber is denervated and you reinvervate it with a white fiber, it will become a white fiber

• thin to thick = 6:1
• hexagonal arrangememnt allows use of least # of filaments for maximum force output

• H-only thick in middle , shortens
• I- only thin at edge, shortens

A- entire thick filament, stays the same

• tight junction
• desmosomes
• basal lamina

smooth and cardiac

skeletal

mitochondria

• CNS- oligodendrocyte - one cell myelinates many axons
• PNS- shwann cell- one cell myelinates single axon

• DRG: psuedounipolar (sensory)
• ARG: multipolar (motor)

• 6 layers
• pyramidal: 3 & 5
• 3 regions:
• --molecular :perkinje dendrites
• --perkinje: perkinje cells [FOUND IN CEREBELLUM]
• --granular: perkinje axons

• endothelium
• tight junctions
• basal lamina

degeneration of axon distal to site of injury

loss of nissl substance from cell body

• lots of cells, lots of blood vessels
• fills in spaces b.w other tissues

• 1 Extravsion of Neutrophils:
• --histamine produces selectin receptors that bind to selectin on neutrophils
• --chemokines produce integrin receptors that slow down the neutrophils
• 2 transmigration: diapadesis of neutrophil via pseudopod
• 3 chemotaxis: follow chemical gradient to injury site

eosinic myelocyte

• large
• multinucleated
• in Howships

• when A and C are phosphorylated, the nuclear membrane lamin network dissociatees to promote mitosis
• ---lamin B holds the fragments of this process

reassembles after mitosis via dephosphorylation

D, E, A , B

• CDK1- activates proteins of mitosis
• CDK 2- activates proteins of S phase

• Rb
• p53 (p21)

@ G1 checkpoint

• tumor supressor gene
• normally dephosphorylated (active state)
• represses transcribition by binding to E2F

• active when DNA is damaged...and causes p53 phosphorylation
• p53 stimulates CDK inhibitor p21
• cell either repairs or apoptosis
• cause of 50% of all cancers

• Necrosis:
• pathological
• group of cells die
• membrane explosion
• neighboring cells can damage
• causing inflammation

• Apoptosis:
• physiological
• affects individual cells
• membrane blebs off (implosion)
• neighbors are not damaged (bc its imploded)
• no inflammation
• due to phosphatidylsering going from Pface oto Eface

• vascular dilation
• neutrophils adhere to endothelum (pavementing/margination)
• neutrophils move from vessels to tissues (chemotaxis)
• fluid accumulates in interstitium
• resolution - infection phagocytosed, pus

• acute: suppurative (purulent), serous, fibrous
• chronic: grunulomatous, ulcerative

• if it is unorganized that you are in the gray matter of spinal cord
• and presence of cell body eliminates white matter

• look for distinct CT capsules
• very round cell bodies surrounded by satellite cells
•  

the myenteric (auerbach) plexus between inner circular and outter longtitunial muscularis externa

• Epithelium
• Lamina Propria
• Muscularis Mucosa

• submucosa
• muscularis externa (inner circular)
• muscularis externa (outter longtitudinal)

adventita

• chief cells: very small and dark (look like platelets)
• parietal cells: look like fried eggs (lighter)

• in the duodenum
• extends to mucosa and submucosa

• Crypts of Leburkuhn (of intestines)
• not usually in duodenum but increases from jejunum to illeum

• Hormone-secreting
• cells (endocrine function)

• Secretes
• CCK, secretin, gastric inhibitory peptide, vasoactive
• intestinal peptide, etc.

• alpha cells- glucagon- periphery
• beta cells- insulin- central
• delta cells- somatostatin-dispersed- controls alpha and beta
• pp cells (f cells)- pancreatic polypeptide
• g cells- gastrin
• c cells- immature islets

• secretes cck and secretin
• trypsinogen > trypsin [via enterokinase from duodenum]
• trypsin then cleaves the following:
• chymotrypsinogen
• procarboxypeptidase
• prophospholipase a2

• producs albumin
• fat soluble vitamins ADEK
• produces bile

• blood drainage to central vein
• hexagonal w central vein in center
• portal vein> sinusoids> central vein > hepatic eins

• bile secretion (exocrine)
• triangular
• central veins make apecies
• center = portal space

• diamond/egg shaped?
• 2 central veins make the long axis
• 2 portal triads make short axis
• Zone 1 closest to triad (alcohol damage)
• zone 3 closest to central vein (necrosis)

b/w hepatocyte and enothelial sinus

macrophages of liver in sinusoids

• stellate cells of kupffer
• fat soluble storing cells

• natural killer cells- kills viruses and cancer cells
• in sinusoids

b/w portal triad and immediately surrounding hepatocytes

gallstones from excessive cholesterol and indadequate bile slats

• cardiovascular
• lymphatic

• Found in endothelial cells (EXCEPT CAPILLARIES!)

• Have Von Willebrand factor that binds Factor VIII

•Promotes Coagulation

• tunica media: 40-70 layers of elastic fibers (THICK, type III collagen - reticulin)
• aorta, subclavian, corotid, brachiocephallic, common illiacs

• aka medium arteries
• distinct EEL and IEL
• 8-40 layers of smooth muscle
• radial, ulnar, femoral, tibial (distributing arteries)

• BP determinants (most resistance)
• 1-2 layers of smooth muscle
• meta arterioles- precapillary sphincters

endothelium + basal lamina

• aka somatic
• pericytes
• continuous basal lamina and tight junctions
• MUSCLES LUNGS CNS BBB

• aka visceral
• continuous basal lamina
• pores in endothelial wall with diaphragms
• kidneys, gut, choroid plexus [endocrine organs]

• Sinusoidal
• discontunous basal lamina and endothelial cells
• fenestrations with no diaphragms
• LIVER SPLEEN BONEMARROW

• veins have thick adventitia
• arteries have thick media

• visceral- serous
• parietal- fibrous

• Endocardium- simple squamous, has subendothelial layer with purkinje fibers
• myocardium- heart muscles (thickness varies), intercalated disks, vascularized
• epicardium- single mesothelum on loose CT with white adipose

• appositional growth (width) requires perichondrium
• fibrocartillage and articular cartillage lack perichondrium

zone of proliferation stops growing

• Cartillage- avascular
• CT- has blood vessels

it is the only structure that can have longtitudinal muscle in the tunica adventitia

• arterioles
• capillaries
• post capillary venules

• induce clotting
• factor 8 (von willebrand factor)
• released upon vessel injury
• NOT IN CAPILLARIES!

have less glycogen and myofibrils than rest

adipose cells

large elastic arteries > medium muscular arteries > small arteries > arterioles> capillaries> post capillary venules > small veins > medium veins > large muscular veins

capillaries

• Rouget cell
• on surface of cappilaries for support
• can differentiate if necessary

• looks like a tumor lollipop thing
• high endothelial venules
• allow WBCs to pass b.w cells and enter CT
• extend inwards

• black
• myelin of peripheral nerves

elastic fiber brown stain

• dorsal afferent
• ventral efferent

ventral = alpha 1 motor neurons

• exocytosis - calcium dependent
• endocytosis- clathrin receptor dependent (specific)
• pinocytosis- actin dependent
• phagocytosis- non specific

on ventral side

• neutrophils: bacteria
• lymphocytes: viruses
• eosinophils: parasites
• basophils: allergies