Human Geography

• Stay the same
• Have certain criteria they use to select a factory
• Maximize profit while using lower costs
• Spatial organization

• Principles of location
• Economic interdependence
• Cumulative history

• Historical relationship between present day activities and past experiences of a place
• Late starters vs early starters

• Use land to highest profit and utility
• Maximize interaction at lowest cost
• Classical economics, assumed rational economic actors
• Large companies, all activities taking place on US soil
• Firms seek point of least transport cost
• Some materials are ubiquitous (everywhere)
• Most materials are localized, and so must be transported

Maximize with consumers/markets/suppliers

• Every economic action is rationale
• Maximize utilities, happiness
• 100% are full of information

• Firms activities happen in national boundaries
• Transport cost a function of distance and weight
• -Heavier things stay in close areas
• -Lighter things are cheaper to ship
• Material Index

• Weight of localized material inputs Weight of finished product
• If less than 1, firm locates near MARKET
• If more than 1, firm locates near (HEAVIEST) RAW MATERIALS

• Sand, air, water
• Don’t need to “transport” them

A real factor for corporations

• Products are breakable, perishable, or heavier than their inputs (raw materials)
• High costs of land and labor in market regions, are tolerable because of advantage (cost savings) of market proximity
• -Higher tolerance for cost

• Bottling industries (weight gaining, using ubiquitous resource)
• Auto assembly plants (weight gaining)
• Dairy farms (perishability)
• Petrochemicals

• Weight-gaining
• Weight-losing, bulk industries

• Seek to use land to maximize profit and utility
• Maximize interaction at lowest cost
• Material inputs
• Labor
• Energy
• Transportation
• Government policies

• Petroleum
• Ethylene
• Salt
• Water
• Other

• Skill
• Cost

• Quantity
• Cost
• Combination of energy and minerals needed for economic development is unevenly distributed

• Inputs (Raw materials)
• Outputs (Access to markets)

• Trains close to water
• -Easier to move from one type to another
• -Easier to get to water

• Tax incentives
• Environmental regulations
• Always intervening

Offer tax breaks to companies that want to move here

• Expensive transport of raw materials, so manufacturing occurs near the raw materials
• Primary activities (or extractive industries) are material oriented

• Copper and steel production
• Timber mills
• Furniture manufacture
• Most agricultural activities (sugar)

• Primary production concern is labor (quality or cost)
• Require cheap unskilled labor
• -Garment industry, retail
• Require highly skilled professionals
• -High tech firms

Petrochemical Firms Seek to...

• Backward and forward linkages
• Ancillary activities

• Input
• Relationship with supplier
• Material flows from material suppliers to steel production plant
• Flows of information flows back and forth from material suppliers to steel production plant

• Output
• Relationship with company
• Material flows from steel production plant to market
• Flows of information flows back and forth from steel production plant to market

• Service providers
• -Lawyers
• -Consultants
• -Advertising agencies
• Subcontractors
• -Maintenance firm
• -Haulage firm

Regional Economic Cores Derive From...

• The proximity of functionally related activities
• -Beneficial to a firm, closer to other firms
• -Can do business more efficiently

Circumstance beyond a firm’s organization (labor, markets, fixed capital, etc)

• Clustering together at specific location- within 1 industry, forming basis for continuing growth
• Reputation: Silicon Valley, LA, Detroit, Chemical Alley

• Cumulative causation
• Backwash effects

• Initial local advantage tends to be reinforced by principles of agglomeration and localization
• A spiral buildup of advantages that occurs in specific geographic settings as a result of the development of external economies, agglomeration effects, and localization economies

• Negative impacts on a region due to the economic growth of some other region
• Can take many forms- brain drain, dumping site
• Hope Scholarship- we don’t want students to leave the state

• Special effects
• Import substitution
• Agglomeration diseconomies
• Deindustrialization

Positive effects on a region as a result of economic growth of another region

• Previously imported goods are replaced by domestic goods and services
• Government subsidizes production, protects through tariffs
• Japan- textiles, autos electronics

Negative economic effects of urbanization and local concentration of industry

What is single most important geographical feature of economic development?

Economic Development is Measured in

Estimate of total value of all materials, foodstuffs, goods, and services produced by a country in a year

GDP + income from abroad

Factors in Unevenness for Processes

• Created a plantation economy (sugar, coffee, cocoa) with enslaved labor force from West Africa
• Never invested heavily in this colony
• -With end of slavery, plantations declined in productivity as labor costs rose

Rice, bananas, and citrus fruits replaced

• America firm began mining bauxite and processing it
• into alumina
• During World War II, more than 75% of U.S. bauxite imports came from Dutch Guiana
• Manufactured first pull-tab aluminum can
• -Demand for aluminum soared

Became an autonomous part of Kingdom of Netherlands

• Completed across Suriname River to produce hydro electric power for alumina production
• Impounds the 600-square-mile (1,550-square-km) W.J. van Blommestein Lake
• -Largest impounded lake on the planet.

• Has potential for tourism, boasting rainforests, abundant wildlife and colonial architecture in the capital
• The sector is undeveloped, hampered by the inaccessibility of the interior and the lack of infrastructure
• Depends heavily on mining and processing its declining reserves of bauxite and is vulnerable to falls in commodity prices

Discovery of bauxite

• Enable: Ability to create alumina and aluminum from bauxite on industrial scale
• Compel: WWI
• Clusters of inter-related energy, transportation and production technologies that dominate economic activity for several decades at a time
• Favor different regions at different times
• Rewrite geography of economic development

• Primary sector
• Extraction of natural resources agriculture, mining, forestry, fishing

Peripheral country

A way to standardize economy

Thousands of animals were moved to build a dam in Suriname

• 1790-1840
• Water power, steam engines, cotton textiles, ironworking, river, canals, turnpikes

• The shift from the piedmont to the coastal plane
• Creates waterfalls (creates energy)
• Doesn't extend to West Virginia and Kentucky because of mountains

What were big investments during the industrial revolution?

One of the first to use water as energy

• Started off by the HOMES because of the water
• Used from Chicago to Great lakes to Eerie canal then to Europe
• Trains carried a lot of grain from Chicago

Using more than one type of transportation

• 1840-1890
• Coal-powered steam engines, steel, machine tools, railroads, world shipping

Center of Density for Railroads

• 1890-1950
• Opened up new places to go
• Oil, plastics, heavy engineering, automobiles, aircraft, radio, telecommunications

• 1950-1990
• Nuclear power, aerospace, petrochemicals, electronics, highways, air routes

Biggest Petroleum Producers

• 1990-Present
• Solar, robotics, microelectronics, biotechnology, information technology

Was nothing but fields

• Rise of off-shore finance
• Was nothing but poor islands

Manufacturing Process, transform, fabricate, assemble raw materials or reassemble, refinish, package manufactured goods

Sale or exchange of goods & services

• Handling and processing knowledge & information
• Silicon Valley
• Cayman Islands

Geographical divisions of labor national, regional or local economic specializations evolved with this

• Limited technology
• Static society

Commercial exploitation of agriculture and extractive industry

Transition triggered by external influences, interests, or markets

Development of a manufacturing system

Installation of physical infrastructure (roads, railways, etc.) and emergence of social/political elite

Development of wider industrial and commercial base

Investment in manufacturing exceeds 10% of national income; development of modern, social, economic, and political institutions

Exploitation of comparative advantages in international trade

Places and regions follow parallel development

• Appeal primarily to one group living in one place or region
• Judaism
• Shaped by dispora

The spatial diffusion of a religion that was just in one space

Trade is used to seeking religion

May leave and never come back

Spreads right up to roman empire, but no farther

• A member of powerful Arab tribe Mecca a thriving mercantile city emerging from nomadic culture
• Converts messages to the people
• Went from mercantilism to nomadic
• Found a “politically viable [and] spiritually illuminating” solution

• (Recitatations) came to Muhammad in pieces over 23 years
• Word of God as relayed by Archangel Gabriel Masterpiece of Arab prose and poetry

• Surrender of entire being to Allah justice, equity and compassion
• Submission to God's will

Build socially just community orthopraxy over orthodoxy (practice over speculation)

• Submission to Allah's Will
• Practice is personal – not mediated by priest
• Imam devout leader - calls to prayer and sermons

• Shahadah
• Salah
• Zakah
• Sawm
• Hajj

• Profession of faith
• There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God

• Prayer 5 times a day
• Facing Mecca
• Simple, personal, communal

• Religious tax
• Enshrines social responsibility to community and less fortunate

• Fast during Ramadan
• Deeply personal worship “greater needs than bread”

• Pilgrimage to Mecca
• Peak of religious life
• Kabah the focus of lifetime of prayer
• Religious Pilgrimage
• Long distances travelled likened it to migration in effects of cultural diffusion

• Pilgrimages to Mecca from across growing Islamic world contributed significantly to spread of religious, culinary, and other cultural practices
• Coffee was introduced to Yemen so people could prolong prayer at night

Coffe was spread by..

• Limited resources in Arabian desert
• Could not steal from members of the ummah
• As the ummah grew, ghazu conducted further afield

• Succession of Islamic leaders dealt with expansion differently
• Garrison towns, no mixing of populations, no conversion
• Later desegregation, mixing, conversion
• Increasingly hard to control expanding territory

Quran urges Muslims to acquire knowledge - one of highest religious activities

• Science
• Technology
• Literature
• History
• Biography (of Prophet)
• Mathematics
• Astronomy
• Chemistry
• Hydraulics
• Translations of Scriptures

Seljuk Turks in Central Asia convert to Islam “unparalleled cross-fertilization of once isolated intellectual traditions”

• Ottoman fleet a major Mediterranean naval power
• Conquered Syria, Arabia, Egypt, Iraq
• With control of Islam’s holy places sultan took title of Caliph, ruler of all Muslims
• Controlled all Middle Eastern trade routes
• Expanded into Europe
• Built many mosques and public works in ancient cities of Islam
• Spread out in all directions

• Agrarian empires outgrew themselves
• Confronted economic and military competition from modernizing Europe
• Whole new context for decline
• West penetrating Islamdom for centuries
• -13th c. Venetian trading posts in Egypt, Syria, Lebanon
• -1498 Vasco da Gama’s route around India undercut Mediterranean trade

• Scientific revolution led to greater control over environment
• Mercantilism pointed outward for enrichment
• Innovation in European core
• Efficiency – labor – education – markets -governance Secularization & democracy increasingly important to modern state

• European search for raw materials, markets, military bases & colonies penetrated most of Ottoman Empire
• Arab nationalism on the rise
• -Europe entered power vacuum created by Empire’s decline 1869 Suez Canal
• -1918 Palestine question

• Intrusion of West raised deep religious questions
• Quran promised that a society submissive to God’s will could not fail
• Muslims faced constant challenge to build better world
• Humiliation of ummah a political and religious catastrophe

Adam to Abraham to Sarah Isaac (Jesus) and Hagar Ishmail (Mohammed)

The holy place for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

Built at site in Jerusalem at which Mohammed ascended in to heaven

• Judaism was founded..
• Christianity...
• Islam....

Western wall (2nd temple)

Stations of the cross

• Mecca
• Medina

• Sanctified place of worship
• Congregational worship an important religious practice

• Not for congregational worship
• Shrines for particular gods

• Not for congregational worship
• Shrines for relics of Buddha’s life

• Congregational churches follow population growth
• Built 1911 on growing East Side of city City booming with immigration German, Hungarian, Irish
• 1000s thousands of American churches have closed in areas with declining populations
• Major task of diocesan decision-making structure – which to close, what to do with closed churches

• Railroad/ Great Lakes transhipment point Largest inland port
• 2nd only to Chicago as a rail center Steel, automobile parts, aircraft production
• 6th largest steel producer 8th largest manufacturing center
• Industrial decline accompanied by population decline
• Attempts to diversify regional economy include light manufacturing, high technology and service-sector

Increasing interconnectedness of parts of the world through common processes of economic, environmental, political and cultural change

• International agencies
• Global communication networks
• Standardized time
• International law
• Human rights and citizenship
• Increase in proportion of transnational activities

Agents of globalization & cultural homogenization include

• Homogeneity
• Coca-Colonialism
• McDomination vs. French Culture Imperialism
• Disneyfication vs. French Culture Imperialism

• EuroDisney
• “degenerate utopia” “will deform generations of French children
• French Minister of Culture calls for: “ a real crusade against...this financial and intellectual imperialism that no longer grabs territory...but grabs consciousness, ways of thinking, ways of living”

• Local distinctiveness
• Resistance

• French suppression of regional languages polyglot - barrier to democracy and egalitarianism
• French protection of national/regional languages in face of EU
• Hebrew as national language of Israel (1947)
• 11 national languages of South Africa (1994)

Tools for studying the geography of language

Place names

• Starts at family then branch then group
• Communicating ideas or feelings by means of a conventionalized system of signs, gestures, marks, or articulate vocal sounds

• 2000 yrs ago – did not exist
• 1500 yrs ago – Englisc
• 400 yrs ago – native speech of 5-7 million
• Today - 750 million speakers, 1⁄2 as mother tongue Huge vocabulary

How did such a dramatic change in the geography of English happen?

• Sir William Jones theorized their existence with discovery of Sanskrit words
• Location theorized through vocabulary
• -Snow, beech, bee, wolf, winter, horse
• -No word for sea (no where near a sea)

• AD 70- Julius Caesar Hadrian’s wall
• AD 449- English arrived “on the point of a sword”
• Jutes, Angles, Saxons defeated Britons
• Words: Frisian ko, lam, goes, boat, dong, rein
• -In kopke kofje

• AD 793- Viking invasions
• Alfred the Great uses English to foster national identity as force against Vikings
• Pidgin – ization along Danelaw

• AD 597- St Augustine launches Christian conversion
• Greek & Latin Abstract thought
• -Angel, disciple, martyr, shrine

• 1066- Norman invaders defeat Saxons at Battle of Hastings
• Linguistic apartheid
• Latin – religion learning
• French – social & cultural prestige
• English – working people

Contributed to rise of English

• English became this with rise of British-Empire
• A language of international communication & commerce, used over wide area where it is not mother tongue

• Grammar rules and small vocabulary of lingua franca, mixed with elements of own language
• No native speakers – always spoken in addition to native tongue

Variant forms with mutual comprehension

• Religion
• Language
• Sports
• Political styles
• Built environment
• Music

Shared set of meanings lived through material and symbolic practices of everyday life

• Regions
• Landscape
• Spatial diffusion

• Area within which a particular cultural system prevails
• A geographical unit based on characteristics and functions of culture

• Humans mediate environment through creation of landscapes
• Cultural geography became focused on cultural history of landscapes
• Explain landscape morphology (shape and character)
• -Domestication, cultivation, diffusion, hydraulics, fire ecology
• Descriptive in orientation
• Carl Sauer

Landscape is “a comprehensive product of human action such that every landscape is a complex repository of society. It is a collection of evidence about our character and experience, our struggles and triumphs as humans

• Dominant cultures
• Alternative cultures

Plays strongest role

• Play roles as well
• Includes:
• Residual cultures
• Emergent cultures
• Excluded cultures

Historic cultures that have disappeared or are in the process of fading away

Those that are just now appearing

Those that are actively or passively excluded by the dominant culture

• High valley (over 8000 ft), bounded by Hindu Kush (N.) and Koh-i-Baba (S.)
• Large Buddhist monasticcenter

• 1st c A.D. - 10th c. A.D.- Prospered as middlemen between China, India and Rome
• Culture fused alternative cultures: Tribal traditions from Central Asia Hellenistic artistic conventions Buddhist imagery and practices
• Bamiyan a major Buddhist monastery
• Buddhas created in 3rd & 5th c. In western idiom: “provincial Roman” (residual culture)

970 A.D.- Ghazni rulers based to the south impose Islam

• Buddhist statues tolerated by leadership
• 1221 A.D. Valley destroyed by Ghengis Khan
• Statues partially destroyed

• As dominant culture, re-shape
• landscape once again:
• Buddhas destroyed by them in 2001

• Long tradition of Muslim intolerance for Buddhism to uphold
• Bamiyan a base for Northern Alliance
• Taliban’s request for humanitarian aid refused because of Bin Laden

• 1992 – began listing Cultural Landscapes as World Heritage Sites
• Illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal

• With rapid developments in technology of communication or warfare
• Where an expansionist society comes in contact markedly less advanced societies (technologically)
• E.g. Colonialism a major source of cultural diffusion

• Fossil fuels and other natural resources and mediating technologies
• -Supply is finite (for many)
• -Supply is unevenly distributed across globe
• -Consumption is unevenly distributed across globe
• -Consumption is unevenly regulated across globe

A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically for decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity

• Average temperature rose 1 C in 20th C
• Projected to rise 5 C in 21st C

• Increased presence of gases within atmosphere prevent heat from escaping
• Gases produced:
• Increase in fossil fuels Use of inert gases for industrial use (e.g. fluorocarbons)
• Decrease in forests that absorb CO2
• 2010 stop carbon emissions

• Wet places wetter/Dry places dryer
• Some places may get cooler while rest of world gets warmer
• Rise in sea level

• Caused by the melting ice caps
• Flooding in coastal zones
• Change in pattern of currents
• -Gulf coast is warm and Europe is cold
• Would flip
• Change in fishery conditions
• Saltwater and freshwater intrusion

• In US, 673 coastal counties of lower 48
• -17 % land area
• -53% population
• 14 of 20 largest cities on coast
• 17 of 20 fastest growing cities on coast

Move beyond the same political jurisdiction, involving a change of residence- either as emigration or immigration

Environmental management rule that if a threat of serious or irreversible damage to the environment or human health exists, a lack of full scientific knowledge about the situation should not be allowed to delay containment or remedial steps if the balance of potential costs and benefits justifies enacting them. In other words, "prevention is better than cure"

• International agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
• Sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions by an average of five % against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012

Refers to the point of maximum production of oil, after which oil supplies are expected to decline

• Contrary attitudes toward future ambiguity
• Methodology
• Based on models
• Based on data

• Bell shaped distribution
• Production would peak at approximately the half point of supply
• Peak would be reached in the 1970s

Government announced that “US was pumping oil at full tilt and there was no additional capacity that could be brought on stream to counteract rising prices”

• Changed the US’s relationship with the rest of the world
• Became a net importer of oil
• #1 most traded commodity
• -Price fluctuations are felt the world over

Saddam Hussein wanted a port

• Possibility of ore regional unrest and regime change
• May be more and more unrest

• U.S. became more involved in stabilizing key regimes
• State’s power to control space o territory and shape the foreign policy of individual states and international political relations

• Supply disruption/price hike
• Inflation
• Slow recovery from recession
• BUT: Government stockpiles developed since 1970s create buffers
• -Saudia Arabia has spare capacity

Technologically- hydrogen or electric powered cars Politically- regulation in re climate change

Non-Conventional Sources could turn Peak into Plateau

Demand for oil falling since 2005 in OECD economies

• Geopolitics
• -Intervene in affairs of major oil producers
• -Prioritize/stabilize “choke points”
• -Form regional blocs to protect sources
• Re-localization of economies
• -Firm behavior
• --Minimize transport costs
• --Local/regional agglomeration
• Eco-localization
• -Develop regional economic concentrations
• -Lower food miles
• -Lower dependence on fossil fuels

Interaction between the Old World originating with the voyages of Columbus, and the New World

The view that natural resources should be used wisely and that society's effects on the natural world should represent stewardship and not exploitation

Study of the relationship between a cultural group and its natural environment

The removal of trees from a forested area without adequate replanting

Phenomenon of near genocide of native populations

The degradation of land cover and damage to the soil and water in grass lands and arid and semiarid lands

Introduction of exotic plants and animals into new ecosystems

Community of different species interacting with each other and with the larger physical environment that surrounds it

Movement reflecting a growing political consciousness, largely among the world's poor, that their immediate environs are far more toxic than those in wealthier neighborhoods

Combination of political, economic, social, historical, and environmental problems at the world scale

Period when chipped-stone tools first began to be used

Approach to cultural geography that studies humans in their environment through the relationships of patterns of resource use to political and economic forces

Approach to nature advocating that certain habitats, species, and resources should remain off-limits to human use, regardless of whether the use maintains or depletes the resource in question

Philosophy that emphasizes interdependence and relatedness between humans and nature

Buildup of sand and clay in a natural or artificial waterway

Philosophy in which a person attempts to rise about nature and the limitations of the body to the point where the spirit dominates the flesh

Conditions in which the population at risk has no natural immunity or previous exposure to the disease within the lifetime of the oldest member of the group

Combination of traits characteristic of a particular group

How space, place, and landscape shape culture at the same time that culture shapes space, place, and landscape

The geographic origins or sources of innovations, ideas, or ideologies

• A characteristic and tangible outcome of the complex interactions between a human group and a natural environment
• Natural environment
• Land form
• Vegetation
• Human group/activities
• Human interventions & structures

An effort to protect regional and national cultures from the homogenizing impacts of globalization especially from the penetrating influence of U.S. culture

A collection of interacting elements that taken together shape a group's collective identity

A single aspect of the complex of routine practices that constitute a particular cultural group

Socially created system of rules about who belongs and who does not belong to a particular group based upon actual or perceived commonality

Traditional practices of small groups, especially rural people with a simple lifestyle who are seen to be homogeneous in their belief systems and practices

Social differences between men and women rather than the anatomical differences that are related to sex

Functionally organized way of life that is seen to be characteristic of a particular cultural group

Geography of the past

Anticolonial, anti-imperial, and generally anticore political movement

Sacred struggle

Relationship based on blood, marriage, or adoption

Collection of languages that possess a definite common origin buy have split into individual languages

Collection of individual languages believed to be related in their prehistorical origin

Collection of several individual languages that are part of a language brach, share a common origin, and have similar grammar and vocabulary

Member of the Islamic community of believers whose duty is obedience and submission to God's will

Practices and meaning systems produced by large groups of people whose norms and tastes are often heterogeneous and change frequently, often in response to commercial products

Problematic classification of human beings based on skin color and other physical characteristics

Practice of categorizing people according to race, or of imposing a racial character or context

Belief system and set of practices that recognize the existence of a power higher than humans

Ceremonial acts, customs, practices, or procedures that recognize key transitions in human life, such as birth, menstruation, and other markers of adulthood such as marriage

Set of practices and identities that a given culture considers related to each other and to those things it considers sexual acts and desires

Form of social identity created by groups who share a set of ideas about collective loyalty and political action

Musical genre defined largely in response to the sudden increase of non-English-language recordings released in the UK and the US in the 1980s

Idea that landscapes can be read and written by groups and individuals

Landscapes that have experienced abandonment, misuse, disinvestment, or vandalism

Specific attachment of individuals or peoples to a specific location or territory

The withdrawal of investments from activities (and regions) that yield low rates of profit in order to reinvest in new activities (and new places)

Syndrome of always having to borrow in order to fund development

A relative decline in industrial employment in core regions

Degree to which levels of demand for a product or service change in response to changes in price

Small areas within which especially favorable investment and trading conditions are created by governments in order to attract export-oriented industries

Ability of manufacturers to shift quickly and efficiently from one level of output to another, or from one product configuration to another

Principles for mass production based on assembly-line techniques, scientific management, mass consumption based on higher wages, and sophisticated advertising techniques

Total of overseas business investments made by private companies

Similar to GDP, but also includes the value of income from abroad

Economic activities that are deliberately organized around one or more high-growth industries

Increased supply of printed currency that leads to higher prices and international financial differentials

Underlying framework of services and amenities needed to facilitate productive activity

Critical importance of an early start in economic develoment

Specialization, by countries, in particular products for export

Manufacturing process in which daily or hourly delivery schedules of materials allow for minimal or zero inventories

Economic principles in which the logic of mass production coupled with mass consumption is modified by the addition of more flexible production, distribution, and marketing skills

Countries formerly peripheral within the world system that have acquired a significant industrial sector, usually through foreign direct investment

Islands or micro-states that have become a specialized node in the geography of worldwide financial flows

Economic activities that are concerned directly with natural resources of any kind

Positive impacts on a region of the economic growth of some other region

Vision of development that seeks a balance among economic growth, environmental impacts, and social equity

Ratio of prices at which exports and imports are exchanged

Groups of countries with formalized systems of trading agreements

Companies with investments and activities that span international boundaries and with subsidiary companies, factories, offices, or facilities in several countries

Evolution form large, functionally integrated firms within a given industry toward networks of specialized firms, subcontractors, and suppliers

• Can cross the placenta and remain in fetal tissue
• Slow clearance
• Can avoid by careful label reading

• No change observed
• –Fertility
• –Size
• –Body weight
• –Growth
• Mortality

• High intakes of sweetened foods and beverages
• Possible association with increasing amount or overweight and obesity
• Surprisingly – little evidence supports a strong direct link of added sugars with obesity (when controlling for the increase in energy)

• May blunt circulating insulin and leptin levels
• Less feeling of satiety
• May result in increased energy intake

• “Liquids” with sucrose and fructose may promote weight gain because less satiating than solid foods
• Remember that HFCS is about 40%to 60% fructose, so effects may be similar to sucrose (50% each of fructose and glucose)

• Originally developed for people with diabetes
• Long term maintenance of body weight – need more data
• Rodent studies aren’t always the same in humans

Do nonnutritive sweeteners maintain a highly sweet food environment and promote obesity?

• Sugars don’t appear to cause it
• Must control their TOTAL carbohydrate (not just their intake of “sugar”)
• Nonnutritive polyols have lower glycemic response; safe for those with diabetes
• Nonnutritive do not affect glycemic response, so OK to incorporate in the diet

• FDA mandates that behavioral tests be done for food additives, such as nonnutritive sweeteners
• No behavioral effects seen with ADI levels of intake

• Headaches
• Seizure
• Hyperactivity
• Brain tumors