Nutrition.txt

the study of foods, their nutrients and other chemical constituents, and the effects that food constituents have on health

chemical substances in food used by the body for growth and health

• Carbohydrates
• proteins
• fats
• vitamins
• minerals
• water

• chemical substances in plants that perform important functions in the human body
• Reduce risk of some cancers, heart disease, infections, and other disorders
• Give plants color and flavor
• Enable plants to grow and protect themselves against insects and disease
• Some are antioxidants

• chemical substances that prevent or repair cell damage caused by oxidizing agents such as environmental pollutants, smoke, ozone, and oxygen
• Includes pigments such as lycopene, anthocyanins and beta-carotene

• substances required for normal growth and health that the body can manufacture in sufficient amounts from other sources in the diet
• do not require a dietary source

• substances required by the body that the body cannot produce (or produce in sufficient amounts) and must be obtained in the diet
• dietary deficiency of an essential nutrient causes a specific deficiency disease (scurvy- vit. C deficiency)
• The amounts of essential nutrients needed vary among the nutrients

unit of measure used to express the amount of energy produced by foods in the form of heat

• supply energy
• High-fat foods provide more calories per ounce than foods that contain mostly carbs or protein

4 Calories/gram

4 Calories/gram

9 Calories/gram

7 Calories/gram

• nutrient grams x calories/gram = Calories
• ex. 15g carbs x 4 cal/g = 40 Calories

• provide relatively high levels of calories per unit weight of food (fried foods, cheeseburgers, chips)
• too many calories

• provide an excess of energy or calories in relation to nutrients (soft drinks, candy, sugar, alcohol, animal fats)
• low in nutrients

• contain relatively high amounts of nutrients compared to their calorie value (broccoli, collards, bread, cantaloupe, lean meats)
• healthy solution

foods containing more than one ingredient must display a Nutrition Facts Panel

• lists a standardized, reasonable portion size
• up-front listing of total calories and calories from fat
• the % Daily Value column shows how a food fits into the overall diet. It indicates the percentage of the recommended daily amounts contributed by a serving of the food
• grams are counted in "total fat"
• grams are counted in "total carbs"
• lists % Daily Value for 2 vitamins and 2 minerals most likely to be lacking in the diet of today's consumers

• scientifically agreed-upon standards of daily intake of nutrients from the diet developed for use on nutrition labels
• represent percentages of standards (RDAs) obtained from one serving of the food product
• *based on a 2000 calorie daily intake (60% carbs, 30% fat, 10% protein)

• dietary recommendations for carbs, fat, protein based on a percentage of total calorie intake
• 2000 Kcals x .60 = 1200
• 1200 kcals CHO / 4 k/g = 300 g
• 1500 / 2000 = .75 = 75%

• if a % DV is 5% or less, it's a poor source
• 10-15% is a good source
• 20% or more is excellent

• complex carbohydrate- 48%
• simple carbohydrate- 10% (sugar cereals- frosted flakes, fruits, cakes, cookies)
• saturated fat- 10% (red meats, butter, hot dogs)
• monounsaturated fat- 10%
• polyunsaturated fat- 10%

• Greece and Italy
• people lie longer
• diet rich in monounsaturated fat (olive oil)
• 1 serving of red meat a month

• adequate energy and nutrients
• reduce risk of chronic diseases
• ranges: 45-65% kcalories from carbohydrate, 20-35% kcalories from fat, 10-35% kcalories from protein

• nutrition claims on packages must conform to FDA standard definitions
• ex. low fat is less than or equal to 3g fat/serving, lean is less than 10g fat, 4.5g saturated and trans fat, and 95mg cholesterol/serving

manufacturers can't add nutrients to certain foods then claim the product is "healthy"

• foods with scientifically agreed-upon benefits for disease prevention can be labeled with a health claim
• the FDA approves health claims for food products that are not high in fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, or sodium

• all foods with more than one ingredient must have an ingredient label
• fiber- 3g of fiber per 1/2 cup, bread = 3g per 1 slice

• ingredients must be listed in order of their contribution to the weight of the food, from highest to lowest
• beverages that contain juice must list the percentage of juice on the ingredient label
• the terms "colors" and "color added" coannot be used, the name of the specific color ingredients must be given
• milk, eggs, fish and 5 other foods to which some people are allergic must be listed on the label

• substances added to food
• more than 3000 chemical additives
• specific info about food additives must be listed on label

found in food naturally

not found in food naturally

not found in food naturally

fresh, healthy, extra lean, lean, free, good source, high, low cholesterol, low fat, low saturated fat, low sodium

foods are raw, not frozen or heated, and contain no preservatives

no more than 60 milligrams of cholesterol, 3 grams of fat, and 1 gram of saturated fat; more than 10% of the Daily Value of vitamin A, vitamin C, iron, calcium, protein, or fiber; 360 milligrams or less of sodium

• fewer than 5 grams of fat, fewer than 2 grams of saturated fat and trans fat combined, and fewer than 95 milligrams of cholesterol
• applies to meat only

• fewer than 10 grams of fat, fewer than 4.5 grams of saturated fat and trans fat combined, and fewer than 95 milligrams of cholesterol
• applies to meat only

no-or no negligible amounts of-fat, sugars, trans fat, or sodium

from 10 to 19% of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient or for vitamin A (beta-carotene), vitamin C, or vitamin E in the case of antioxidants

20% or more of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient

• 20 milligrams or less cholesterol
• applies to animal products only

3 grams or less of fat

1 gram or less saturated fat and .5 grams or less trans fat

140 milligrams or less sodium

any product intended to supplement the diet

describes the effect a supplement may have

• a country of origin label must appear on some products
• helps track down foodborne illnesses

processes that convert ingested food into substances that can be absorbed by the intestinal tract and used by the body

circular and longitudinal muscles working together

• the process by which the products of digestion are taken up by the lymphatic system and circulatory system for distribution to body cells
• Small intestine

if organic growers are certified according to USDA rules, the can place the USDA Organic Seal on their labels

standards defined for: energy nutrients, other dietary components, and physical activity

average amount sufficient for half of population

• not daily
• recommendations to meet needs of most healthy people (about 98% of population)

• insufficient scientific evidence
• AI value set instead of RDA
• expected to exceed average requirements
• bad

• point where nutrient is likely to be toxic
• helps protect against overconsumption
• good

• poor nutrition
• results from poor diets (excess or lack of calories or nutrients), ex. vit. A toxicity, obesity, scurvy, underweight
• results from disease states, ex. diarrhea, alcoholism, cancer, ulcers, HIV/AIDS
• results from genetic factors, ex. high cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease, cancer

• chemical substances in foods that consist of a simple sugar molecult or multiples of them in various forms
• sugars, starches, fiber
• primary ingredient of staple foods (pasta, rice, beans, bread)
• 4 links: H, O₂, N₃, C₄
• 3 atoms: 6 C, 12 H, 6 O
• ratio of H to O is 2:1
• carbo = C, hydro = water

simple sugars, complex carbohydrates, and total fiber

monosaccharides and disaccharides

• same numbers and kinds of atoms (differing sweetness)
• 3 types: glucose, fructose, and galactose

• blood sugar
• part of every disaccharide
• not sweet

• fruit sugar
• sweetest of the sugars

• part of the milk sugar
• only in a few foods (not found in nature by itself)
• not sweet

• not made in our bodies
• pairs of 3 monosaccharides: maltose, sucrose, and lactose

• *2 glucose units
• malt sugar- beer
• alcohol is produced by the fermentation of maltose

• *glucose and fructose
• table sugar
• *sugar causes tooth decay

• *galactose and glucose
• milk sugar
• enzyme for digestion- lactase (intestinal)

lactose maldigestion- reduced digestion of lactose due to low availability of the enzyme lactase (genetically determined)

• GI symptoms resulting from consumption of more lactose than can be digested by lactase
• *flatulence, abdominal pain, diarrhea
• *plain white milk is worst
• dietary changes- manage dairy consumption rather than restriction (GI bacteria), fermented milk products, individualized diets, potential nutrient deficiencies (riboflavin, vit. D, and calcium)
• cultured milk products in whcih most of the lactose is digested are generally well tolerated (lactaid)
• cheese and yogurt are better tolerated (the more processing, the better)

links 2 monosaccharides together

breaks a disaccharide in 2

• form of carbohydrate found in starchy vegetables, grains, dried beans, and many types of dietary fiber
• the most common form of starch is made of long chains of glucose units

• another name for complex carbs
• carbohydrates containing many molecules of monosaccharides linked together
• 3 major types: starch, glycogen, dietary fiber

• digestible
• storage form of energy in plants
• composed of many glucose units (2000-26000)
• amylose consists of straight chains of glucose
• amylopectin consists of branched chains of glucose units from the backbone (flour, corn starch, and tapioca in amylopectin)

• storage form of glucose
• complex carbohydrates
• long chains of glucose molecules
• produced only by animals and humans
• stored in liver and muscles
• we don't eat it
• *stored in limited amounts

• naturally occurring, intact forms of nondigestible fiber in plants and "woody" plant cell walls
• contains nutrients and other plant substances
• found in oat and wheat bran; plant cellulose, fruits and vegetables, raffinose in beans

• end product of carb digestion is monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose) before absorption
• small intestine- absorption
• *monosaccharides travel to liver via the portal vein
• in the liver, galactose and fructose are converted to glucose

• major source of energy
• recommended intake 45-65% of total calories
• simple sugars and complex carbs supply 4 calories/gram

• dextrose
• principle sugar in the blood
• glucose is the only simple sugar the body can use to form energy
• cells in brain, blood, and kidneys require a constant supply of energy from glucose (they only accept glucose)- 150 g/day

a hormone produced by the pancreas and released by the pancreas

hormone produced by pancreas and released to help raise blood glucose level

• 1. when a person eats, blood glucose rises
• 2. high blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release insulin
• 3. insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose into cells and storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles. insulin also stimulates the conversion of excess glucose into fat for storage
• 4. as the body's cells use glucose, blood levels decline
• 5. low blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release glucagon into the bloodstream
• 6. glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood
• 7. blood glucose begins to rise

• 1. be there for body's energy needs
• 2. if excess carbs beyond energy needs, insulin stimulates formation of glycogen stored in liver and muscles (limited amounts)
• 3. insulin stimulates conversion of excess glucose to fatty acids and store into fat tissues

• disease characterized by abnormal utilization of carbohydrates by the body and elevated blood glucose levels
• 6% of adults worldwide
• 10% of US adults

type 1, type 2, gestational (pregnancy)

• high blood glucose resulting from destruction of insulin-production cells of the pancreas
• formerly juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent diabetes
• not caused by too much sugar, lack of insulin production is problem
• autoimmune disease that causes insulin deficiency
• develops when the immune system destroys insulin production beta cells in the pancreas
• triggered by medications or vital infections

• diets are designed to match insulin doses to keep blood glucose within normal ranges
• carefully planned meals are consumed in specific amounts at specific times
• physical activity improves blood glucose levels and glucose utilization

• high bloode glucose due to the inability to use insulin normally, or to produce enough insulin
• # 1 cause: overweight/obesity
• people over 40

• years before type 2 diabetes, individuals tend to develop insulin resistance
• insulin resistance- when cell membranes have reduced sensitivity to insulin, more insulin than normal is required to get glucose into cells

condition in which blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough for diagnosis of diabetes

• weight loss
• regular physical activity
• dietary management

if glucose can't get into cells: cells become starved for glucose, and cell and tissue fuctions decline, resulting in elevated triglycerides and blood pressure

• short-term: blurred vision, frequent urination, weight loss, infection, delayed would healing, extreme hunger and thirst
• long-term: heart disease, hypertension, nerve damage, blindness, kidney failure, stroke, amputation

• carb-containing foods have a range of effects on blood glucose
• measure of the extent to which blood glucose level is raised by a 50-gram portion

• 5-6% of women
• risk depends on age, body weight, ethnicity
• often disappears after delivery
• increased risk of type 2 later

• low glucose levels
• caused by excess insulin in blood
• symptoms: irritability, nervousness, weakness, sweating, and hunger

• a general term used to describe any material that remains undigested in the colon
• recommended intake 28-35 grams/day
• intake by US children and adults is low: about 15 g/day
• *starch has an alpha 1-4 bond (digestable)
• *cellulose (type of fiber) has a beta 1-4 bond (stronger and unbreakable
• fiber is not caloric

functional, dietary, total, soluble, insoluble

• specific types of nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial effects on health (psyllium, pectin, gels, gums)
• effects- feeling of fullness, slows glucose absorption, prevents constipation

naturally occurring, intact forms of nondigestible fiber in plants and "woody" plant cell walls

the sum of functional and dietary fiber

• combine chemically with water
• found in oats, barley, rye, legumes (dried beans), fruit (citrus, prunes), psyllium (metamucil), gums, pectin, and mucilages
• benefits: slows glucose absorption and reduces fat and cholesterol absorption
• pectin makes jelly (soluble fiber forms a gel)
• * fat is hydrophobic
• *lowers blood cholesterol!* (helps prevent heart disease)

• emulsifer- a substance that prepares a fat for digestion
• Fat and cholesterol need help the whole way through digestion
• taken out of body with soluble fiber which means body needs to make new bile acids using cholesterol from the bloodstream

• does not combine chemically with water
• found in wheat bran (wheat, flour), some legumes, fruits, and vegetables

• delays onset of hunger (decreases calorie intake, helpful in weight control- reduce risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease)
• laxation: soluble increases moisture of stool, insoluble decreases transit in colon and increases stool weight and frequency (helpts to prevent constipation, hemorhoids, and diverticulosis)

chronic condition in which the intestinal walls of the colon develops bulges (outpockets) in weakened areas

• an acute state of infammation and infection
• how to prevent- eat fiber!

• dietary fiber and colon cancer- phytochemiclas
• preventing colon cancer- diluting, binding, and removing, and bacterial fermentation

excessive fiber- insufficient energy or nutrient needs, and abdominal discomfort, gas, diarrhea, and nutrient absorption (ex. minerals), and dietary goals (balance, moderation, variety)

seed or kernal milled in its entirety

• bran- outer covering, high in fiber, vitamins, and minerals
• germ- rich in unsaturated fat, vitamins, and minerals, lower portion
• endosperm- internal section, rich in carbohydrates/starch, small amount of protein

process of removing the bran and germ

• replacement of thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), iron, and folate (helps replicate cells) lost when grains are refined
• all refined grain products must be enriched

• addition of one or more vitamins and/or minerals
• any food can be fortified

• type of fat is more important than total fat
• excess calories cause weight gain, not fat
• healthy diets provide 20-35% of calories from "healthy" fats

• compounds that are insoluble in water and soluble in fat
• family of lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols (cholesterol)

• solubility in fat and water
• emulsifiers in food industry- lecithin (helps smooth out fats)
• lcithin found in egg yolk
• roles: part of cell membrances, emulsifiers

• energy source: 9 calories/gram
• carriers of fat-soluble nutrients (essential fatty acids, and A, D, E, K)
• energy stores: excess calories are converted to triglycerides, 1 lb body fat- 3500 calories
• cushion and protect internal organs
• provide insulation against cold
• increase flavor and palatability of food
• contribute to the sensation of feeling full
• components of all membranes, vitamin D, and sex hormones (more related to cholesterol)

• make up 98% of our fat intake and most of our body's fat store
• transported in blood attached to protein carriers
• used for energy and tissue maintenance
• glycerol backbone
• 3 fatty acids

the length of the carbon chain, degree of unsaturation, and the location of double bonds

• short-chain: 4-6 carbons (very easily absorbed)
• medium-chain: 6-10 carbons (very easily absorbed)- cocnut oil
• long-chain: 12-24 carbons (poorly absorbed)
• *butyric acid (4 carbons in length)- milk and dairy products

based on the # of hydrogens attached to carbon chain

• carbon chains saturated with the maximum # of hydrogen atoms (all single bonds)
• solid at room temp (butter)
• found in animal products
• 3 oils: coconut, palm, palm kernal (liquid at room temp)

2 or more hydrogens missing from carbon chain

• 2 hydrogens missing
• 1 double bond
• oleic acid
• generally liquid at room temp
• sources: olive, canola, and peanut oil, avocados, nuts: peanuts, walnuts, cashews, pistachios

• 4 or more hydrogens missing
• 2 or more double bonds
• generally liquid at room temp

linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, EPA, DHA

• 4 hydrogens missing and 2 double bonds
• in sunflower, safflower, corn, and soybean oils
• oils that are rich in polyunsaturated fats- corn, cottonseed, faxseed, safflower, sesame seed, soybean, sunflower, and wheat germ

• 6 hydrogens missing and 3 double bonds
• in walnuts, dark green leafy vegetables, flaxseed, canola (monounsaturated too), and soybean oils

• 8 hydrogens missing and 4 double bonds
• meat, poultry, and eggs

• eicosapentaenoic acid
• 10 hydrogens missing and 5 double bonds

• docosahexaenoic acid
• 12 hydrogens missing and 6 double bonds
• EPA and DHA are found in fish and shellfish (adequate intake for adults: 500 mg/day, 8 oz fatty fish (2 meals) per week
• salmon, anchovies, sardines, tuna

based on the location of the first double bond on the Methyl End (free-flowing) of the fatty acid

• linolenic acid, DHA, EPA
• 1st double bond between 1st and 3rd carbon

• linoleic acid, arachidonic
• 1st double bond between 6th and 7th carbon

• 1. omega 3 and 6 are essential fatty acids (components of fats required in the diet; linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids)
• 2. omega 3's reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke and reduce stickiness of platelets in blood

• degree of unsaturation- firmness (polyunsaturated fats- very vulnerables to attack by oxygen; saturated fats)
• stability- oxidation and spoilage of fats
• saturated fat is very stable

• 1. products may be sealed in air-tight, non-metallic containers, protected from light, and refrigerated
• 2. use of antioxidants (naturally in it or added)- BHT, BHA and vit. E (vegetable oils)
• 3. hydrogenation

• used to transform unsaturated fats into saturated fats- turns liquid oils into solid fats; extends shelf life of processed foods
• hydrogenation- addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids; converts natural cis form into trans fat

• naturally in corn, cottonseed, etc
• most common, naturally-occurring form of unsaturated fatty acid
• contain hydrogens located on the same side of doubly-bonded carbons

• unsaturated fatty acids in fats that contain atoms of hydrogen attached to opposite sides of carbon atoms joined by a double bond
• trans fats- fats containing fatty acids in the trans form

produced by hydrogenation: raise blood cholesterol levels more than any other type of fat; increase risk of heart disease, stroke, sudden death from heart disease, type 2 diabetes; as little as 2.2 grams/day increases risk; trans fat content requred on labels

• 1. liquid veggie oil
• 2. as soft as possible (not stick)
• 3. trans-fat free

• found in all cell membranes
• major component of nerves and brain
• needed to produce estrogen, testosterone, and vitamin D
• cannot be used for energy

• 2/3 of cholesterol is produced by the liver
• the rest is obtained from the diet

• fats are hydrophobic- digestive enzymes are hydrophilic
• goal of fat digestion: dismantle triglycerides- monoglycerides, fatty acids, and glycerol

• gall bladder releases bile
• bile acts as emulsifier
• pancreatic lipase
• hydrolysis- triglycerides an phospholipids

blood cholesterol levels

4 main types of lipoproteins (lipo=hydrophobic, protein=hydrophilic): chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL)

• made in GI tract wall
• largest and least dense
• *transport diet-derived lipids
• liver removes remnants from blood
• provide fat to cells

• made in the liver
• in blood stream VLDL changes to low-density lipoprotein
• 95% of fat is in triglyceride form

• need receptor
• cell needs
• liver regulation
• bad cholesterol

• remove cholesterol from cells
• carry cholesterol to liver for recycling
• anti-inflammatory properties
• good cholesterol
• HDL's are clean-up lipoprotein

• an essential component of all living matter, and is involved in almost every biological process in the body
• chemical substance in foods, made up of chains of amino acids

end product: mostly amino acids, dipeptides