exam1.txt

• Oikos = House or environment
• Logos = study or knowledge

The scientific study of the relationships or (interactions) of organisms to their environments

Abiotic, and biotic.

Chemical, Physical things.

Living things

• Planet
• Biosphere
• Biomes
• Soil, vegetation, climate e.g. coniferous forest, desert
• Landscapes
• Ecosystems
• Communities
• Populations
• Individuals
• Organs
• Tissues
• Cells
• Organelles
• Macromolecules

• A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place
• Vague
• Depends on the species involved and the limits of the space occupied

All of the individuals of all species living in a particular place

All of the individuals of all species (i.e. community) and non-living environment (abiotic) factors in a particular area

• A. Public Decisions: Ideal World vs. Real World
• B. Hypothetical Lake Scenario
• C. Environmental Problems
• Solid waster
• Toxic chemicals
• Species extinction
• Atmosphere ozone depletion
• Climate change
• Human population growth

scientists

what is

the part of the world that we can see, touch, smell.

• what we think we know about the truth.
• Knowledge is always imperfect, always subject to revision and improvement.

• Understand is the ability to apply knowledge in guiding our actions.
• Basic scientists seek knowledge while applied scientists seek understanding.

• not necessarily the same thing
• Goal is understanding

H, He, O, N, C, Ne

• 96-99% of living things by mass are
• H, C, O, N

Earth is made of O, Fe, Si, Mg, Al

• Living things are made of stuff stars are made of
• Living things use energy to counteract physical forces

• Physical environment both contains life and provides solution to problems
• Living things both depend on and affect the physical environment

• Organisms are mostly made of water
• Plant water
• Live processes take place in water

Common

High heat capacity, thermal expansion

• the ability of a substance to gain or lose heat with out changing temperature
• Water higher capacity
• Water changes temperate slowly
• Aquatic environments change temp slowly as opposed to land

• (Changes in Density)
• Density increases as temperature decreases

• 4 degrees C is more dense then100 degC (density decreases)
• 4 degrees C is more dense then 0 degC (density decreases)

Increases

Double it and add 30.

Water is 800 times more dense then air

• Good = Buoyant - float
• Bad = viscous � takes more energy to move in water then air

Polar ? dissolves lots of things

About 3.4% dissolved minerals

• Na+
• Cl-
• Mg++
• SO4- Sulfate

About 0.01-0.02%

300x

• Ca++
• HCO3 � bicarbonate
• SO4- sulfate

• It goes from 1-14
• 1 = Acidic
• 1 = basic
• [H+] = acidic
• [OH-] = basic

• Bad = denatures enzymes/proteins
• Good = dissolves minerals (solid +rock)

5.0-9.5 being the normal range for living things

• Gas from the atmosphere (CO2)
• CO2 ?H2CO3?H+ + HCO3
• Carbonic Acid and bicarbonate

• the CO2 in the atmosphere <7
• H+ + CaCO3 ? Ca++ + HCO3-

• shortest
• Can cause DNA damage
• Too much energy to be used for living things

Heat. Not enough energy for photosynthesis

Photosyntheticaly active region of light (ROYGBIV)

300feet in clear areas

Rate of photosynthesis (P) = Rate of Respiration (R)

P>R

Rates of photosynthesis = rate of respiration

P

Visible Light + chlorophyll + 6H2O + 6CO2 ? C6H12O6 + 6O2

- - Plants, bacteria, Protists (algae)

- - Glucose, Sugar, Food, Stored energy, Carbohydrates, Starch

C6H12O6 + O2 ? H2O + CO2 + ATP

EVERYBODY DOES THIS - - Plants & Animals!

• 1. Ecology is a science
• 2. Understanding complexity requires models
• �verbal (described in words of what you are modeling)
• Mathematical models (Quantative)
• 3. There are hierarchies of explanations
• 4. Both genes and environment are important
• 5. Ecology is only understandable in the light of evolution
• 6. Chance is important
• Mutation
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow
• Ecological opportunity
• 7. Nothing happens for the good of the species, group selection is bunk.
• What is the macronutrient: nitrogens (NO3- & NH4+) function?
• protein, nucleic acids

nucleic acids, ATP, phospholipids, bone

solute in animal cells for osmotic balance

chlorophyll, enzyme function

protein

cell walls, bone, cell permeability

*Iron, *Boron, *Zinc, *Manganese, *Chlorine, *Molybdenum, *Copper & Nickel

• *Iron, *Boron, *Zinc, *Manganese, *Chlorine, *Molybdenum, *Copper & Nickel
• Sodium, Chromium, Cobalt, Fluorine, Iodine, Selenium, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium

0.03%

Water move out and carbon moves in thought the stomata.

1g of C fixed. 500g of water leave the plant.

3-6%

• Carbonic acid
• CO2 + H2CO3 goes to H+ and HCO3-

HCO3-

20%

1%

That its is a pontential limitant

Withought oxygen

A nutrient that is needed in large quantity

1-4%

They are nutrients that are need in small amounts compared to macronutrients.

O3 � ozone

CFCs

A blanket that warms the earth

• Burning of fossil fuels
• Cutting down trees

• UV light � O3 absorbs most dangerous ones in the ozone
• CFC�s destroy the ozone

• Bad thing? � Climate change
• CO2 ? fossil fuels being burnt ? added to the atmosphere
• Cutting down trees

changed but not qualitative change

reflects it

2.00 cal/ cm^2 / min = solar constant

Typically 52.5%

• .475(200) = 0.95 cal/cm^2 / min = avg piece of earth on a given day
• 1sq m of earth has required energy for 3-4 people

• Composition of atmosphere (pollution)
• Season (angle of sun)
• Topography
• Time of day

The slope on the north side... that faces south gets more sun

• Transfer of electromagnetic radiation or heat transfer between objects not in physical contact
• We are losing heat to the env

Transfer of heat between objects in close physical contact.

• Transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid over surfaces (conduction)
• Air
• Water

• 0 degrees k
• Or -273.15 degrees C

When the wind blows away the boundary layer, you conduct heat more rapidly.

584

• � heated or cooled to the same temp as the body
• Movement of fluid that destroys the boundary layer so you can conduct heat more rapidly

• Heat lost due to the vaporization of water
• At 22 deg C take 584 cal to convert 1g of liquid to h2o to gaseous h2o
• Cool down when you sweat and it take heat with it

destroy boundary layer and will water will evaporate

• heat produced by metabolism of the animal.
• � evap
• +- radiation
• +-conduction
• +- convection
• Tenv Torg � depends on this

• Space & time
• Aquatic and terrestrial environments

• Any non-depeletedtable component of the environment that may affect organisms
• Not consumed
• Not used up
• = Temperature

• Any depletable component of the environment that may affect organism
• Food
• Water
• Plants ? co2, light

assimilated (incorporation into them) used up

Genetically determined characteristic that increases the growth, survival, and or reproduction of an individual or a population of individuals

Mechanism = natural selection

• We cannot adapt, out species can. Our offspring can
• Populations can adapt. Individuals CAN�T adapt.

• Why individuals of a particular species are present in some places and absent in others?
• What must an individual do to be able to live in a new habitat or place?

• Must possess the physiological potential to survive, grow and reproduce - genetics (cope with abiotic environment)
• Must have ecological opportunity to become established � interactions with other organism must be benign (not harmful)
• Must have physical access to the area - be able to get there
• Disperse

Limiting factors & limits of tolerance

Any attribute of the physical environment which affects the survival, growth or reproduction of an individual or a population of individuals

• 1. Statement of Concept
• For any abiotic factor there is typically a min, max and an optimum value for an individual or population
• 2. Tolerance Curve

• Eurytypic is
• being widely tolerant

narrowly tolerant

The zone of intolerance

Zone of physiological stress.

The zone of optimm

Success

Evolution and genetics

A Jack of all trades is a master of none. The stenotypic graph, the narrow one is the master, and the broad eurytpic one is Jack.

• Different species have different ranges of tolerance
• Since physical environments vary geographically, it explains how species vary geographically � communities vary geographically
• Organisms/species has wide ranges of tolerance for so factors and narrow ranges of tolerance for others
• Species may demonstrate different ranges of tolerance for the same factor at different times in its life
• E.G. Newt
• Amphibian
• Eggs (water)
• Larva (gilled)
• Juvenile (terrestrial)
• Adult (water)
• Species with wide ranges of tolerance or many factors tend to be widely distributed geographically

• When Abiotic Factors is not optimum the range of tolerance to other factors may be narrower
• Ranges of tolerance are done in lab experiments
• E.G. Turf Grass
• Spring
• High precipitation
• Lots of soil water
• Temp cool not warm
• Range of temp is higher because they have plenty of water.
• Summer
• Less precipitation
• Lower amount of water in soil
• Temp mild to hot
• Range of temp lower because not much water

• 1. Temperature
• 2. Water
• 3. Light
• 4. Nutrients

• Ability to keep ones internal environment constants in spite of a changing external environment
• All species have this ability o some extent
• Rid excess h2o
• Birds and mammals control body temp
• Mammals eat to maintain body temp
• Cant maintain body temp � avoid harsh conditions

• A. behavior
• Simple behaviors �turtle basking�

• Annual plants right now � seeds
• Sponges � gennuels
• Insects � eggs/pupae

hibernation, aestivation, torpor

• Find a protected location
• Lower body temperature (above 0deg C)
• Torpid � torpor
• Lower body temp

Lower body temp

less of everything

hibernation

aestivate

Seasonal basis � below ground � under frost level

• In the summer they have to eat every 20 minutes � high metabolism
• Don�t eat at night
• Become torpid

Carnivore � mammal � eat anything/anyone

• Lower body temp a little
• Give birth while hibernating

• 2 way movement performed regularly
• Summer home � winter break and back
• Birds, insects, fish, whales, bats � ability to become torpid

Environment induced phenotypic variation

• Sun leaves
• Shorter, narrower thick?
• Shade leaves
• Longer, wider
• Both have equal mass. Genetically identical. Different phenotypes

Part of phenotype.

• A physiological adjustment by an individual in response to abiotic factors in the environment
• Adjust physiology � enzymes change �
• Fish � range of tolerance. Cold h2o

• Average � mean median � comparative
• Extreme example
• Once a month stuff is dumped into the creek

• Light
• Temp
• Wind speed
• House plant � doesn�t experience extreme variation � and they don�t do well

• Species that tells us something about the abiotic environment
• Plants � cant move

• They are de-lineated � marked by out wetlands are surveyed
• Indicator plants
• Obligative wet land plants
• Require water or saturated soil � cattails
• Facultative � both environments

� is a one way movement of an individual away from its home site

• (= Innate) Dispersal
• Genetically determined tendency to move away from ones parents

• (= Environmental) Dispersal
• Movement of an individual from crowded to uncrowded conditions

Disperse

disperse

Cashe seeds � acorns - squirrels

• There is a continuum. Ones who can disperse and ones who can�t.
• Running away from competition
• Fugatative species = always on the run

Parents/home � nice place to live

• Competition with relatives
• Mate with relatives
• Inbreeding or no breeding

• Avoid competition with relatives
• Avoid inbreeding
• Colonize a new un-crowded area
• Cope with changing environment

Death

� behavioral mechanism that locates individuals in a favorable environment

Proximate vs. Ultimate Perspectives

• Immediate physical or physiological cause
• E.g. burning your hand on the stove, the response is immediate � no brain activity involved

• Evolutionary reasons
• Survival, growth, reproduction

• � food
• Ultimate answer � where food usually is

� genetics (instinct)

� learned (environment)

- deciduous

� learning I not relevant... seek decidiius Forrest... more there. (genetic nature)

Nature - genetics

Live in a place it doesn�t prefer � competition � highly genetically influenced

• Habitat selection
• Migration, hibernation, dispersal
• Individual maintenance activities (e.g., preening, sleeping, bathing, etc.)
• Predator-prey, parasite-host, etc.
• Communication
• Territoriality
• Mating behavior
• Parental behavior
• Agonistic behavior
• "Altruistic" behavior

• � any behavior that is relatively fixed or invariable
• Ordered
• Predictable
• High genetic component

• What are releasers?
• They could be biotic or abiotic.
• Elected (caused) by environmental attributes called releasers (causes behavior to occur)
• Fight or flight
• Genetically determined
• Proximate � his scream
• Ultimate - Grow and reproduce
• Running away is the critical choices

• Motivation?
• Animal must be properly motivated � internal sate of the animal

Allows animals to response to appropriately to environments stimuli most of the time

• Learning- modification of behavior due to experience
• Long lived individuals

• Template of their song in their brain
• They recognize its song with the template
• Learning is involved by listening to other individuals of the same species (father)
• Genetics + learning = both important

modified

behavior

• Attributing human characteristics to non human animals
• Giving human characteristics to non human animals.

observation of nature; facts represent the data of the world.

testable statement accounting for a fact or set of facts.

a well-supported or well-tested hypothesis or set of hypotheses.

The five mutually compatible components (or sets of hypotheses) are: 1) Perpetual Change; 2) Common Descent; 3) Multiplication of Species; 4) Gradualism; and 5) Natural Selection.

• Darwinism Revised (Neo-Darwinism): The Synthesis of Darwinism and Genetics
• Gergor Mendel is the only one who understood genetics. Darwin wasn�t wrong, just didn�t know or understand Gregor's theories

• A change in the frequency of alleles in a gene pool from one generation to the next
• Individuals do not evolve or adapt
• Populations adapt

Equation p^2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

frequency of A

frequency of a

0.55

0.44

• AA = 30%
• Aa = 50%
• aa = 20%

• � Population should be large (effects of change are not significant)
• � Mating is random
• � Population is closed (no immigration or emigration)
• � No mutations
• � Everyone survives & reproduces equally

• Some or one of the conditions are not met
• Evolution - change

Inheritable change in the genetic material � DNA

• Point mutation
• Nucleotide mmutation

• Random � unpredictable
• Ultimate source of new alleles (variation)
• Rates are low/variable
• Typically changes for the worse

• Introduction of alleles into a population by the immigration of individuals carrying alleles from a neighboring population
• Changing allele frequency

• Common (dispersal)
• Gene flow may occur passively or actively.

• Greater the distance between populations of the same species the greater the difference between them
• Individuals of the same species often show a regular gradient of variation across a geographical area � Cline

• Song sparrow (LBB�s)
• California � small streaked
• Alaska � large plain
• Cost of America there is gene flow among neighbors
• Little sparrows loses heat faster... larger ones have a larger SA/V ration and don�t lose heat as quick

Typically � loss of alleles due entirely to chance

• Most important in small populations
• Small populations widely separated � threatened and endangered.
• E.g. Mi lottery... 1/ga-billion chance of winning
• Chance is most important in small populations

• Loss of alleles � loss of variation
• Founder effect - unique frequency of allele that aeries in a population derived from a few individuals from a main populations

• Darwin�s finches
• 13 different species
• Got there by chance or bad luck

The non random differential survival and differential reproduction of genotypes from 1 generation to the next

Expressed as differential survival and differential reproduction

• � many genes. Effected by more then 1 gene.
• Get a normal distribution

• � agent or process or phenomena...that causes a change in the allele frequency
• Abiotic + biotic = selected for vs. selected against
• Against = not quite as well
• Reproduce a little less for the �for�

� selection which tends to favor phenotypes at one extreme or the next � a shift to the right... If the selected against its most of the curve and selected for is less, it will move to make the curve better for the �for�

• � selection which tends to favor the average phenotype over the extremes in either direction
• Evolution is the same
• Range decreases
• avg stays the same
• If its works, don�t fix it

� selection which tends to favor the phenotypes at both extremes relative to the AVG, phenotype � bimodal � could lead to two different species

Kin selection and altruism.

� selection which tends to favor phenotypes that demonstrates behavior that benefits related individuals

� self sacrifice

= selfish

• Adopted, close friends, step family.
• How can we explain selfless behavior?

� selection which favors phenotypes that demonstrate behavior that benefits the population at the expense of the individual � unless the group has the same genes as you

� really being nice to someone you have feelings for and car about

• � selection which favors the phenotype that are attractive to the opposite sex
• Heterosexual � survival and reproduce
• Body size
• Brightness
• Lack of parasites
• The female chooses the mate � always

� ability to survive and reproduce

• Yes
• Eastern bluebirds � �helpers at the nest�
• Fledgling that sticks around
• Helps to raise next generation
• Selfish � helps to get genes into the next population

phyletic transformation or gradualist. Time A� ? A� ? A�� ? B

• A-->A�
• A-->A��

• � solved the problem for life in a similar way with no common descent
• Appearance of similar adaptations in unrelated and originally dissimilar species
• A and B -> A� and B�
• Mammals � marsupials � new Zealand & Australia
• No organs develops between mother and baby
• It goes outside the mother and into her pouch and drinks milk

• Concurrent or see saw change in 2 or more interaction populations
• Predator and prey
• Host and parasite
• Selective force = interaction

Diversity of life � vertical evolution � divergent evolution - extinction

� complete disappearance of all individuals of a species from the planet

permanent

� complete disappearance of a species from a particular place � wolverines are extinct in MI

Loss of diversity

• Interpret of fossil records
• Gap (extinction) hard to determine things
• Intermediate or transitional species

• Tiktaalik � fish � a � pod = yes
• Fish with legs. Fish with neck.
• Negative force = how could it be positive?
• New ecological opportunity
• Extinction of dinosaurs allowed for us
• Survivors = positive

• �Normal� extinctions
• Move
• Adapt
• Die

• Higher rate of extinction
• Increase the number of families per million of years

• Dinosaurs? � Large body impact with the earth � asteroid or comet
• Moon separated from the earth itself and became moon
• Destroy atmosphere � block sun
• Stop photosynthesis
• 96% of species extinct�large body impact too? Not sure
• Gradual environmental changes could cause a mass extinction � millions of years

Need data for a few million years