Anatomy & Physiology

Study of the structure of living organisms

Study of the function of living organisms

Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of cells

Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues

A state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body

The most common homeostatic control mechanism. The net effect is that the output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity

Tends to cause the level of a variable to change in the same direction as an initial stimulus

What a structure can do depends on its specific form
*Function is determined by structure

Levels of Organization

Chemical - Cellular - Tissue - Organ - Organ System - Organismal

Atoms (tiny building blocks of matter) combine to form molecules. In specific ways, molecules form organelles.

Cells- smallest units of living things. Cells have some common functions. Vary in size and shape.

Groups of similar cells

Four basic types of tissues

Epithelium
Muscle
Connective
Nervous

Covers body surface, lines cavities

Provides movement

Supports and protects body organs

Provides internal communication by electrical impulses

Structure of at least two tissues. Extremely complex functions become possible.

Stomach-lining is an __(a)__ (produces digestive juices). __(b)__ churns and mixes stomach contents. __(c)__ reinforces soft muscular walls. __(d)__ fibers increse digestion by stimulating muscle to contract vigorously and glands secrete more digestive juices.

Organs work together

__ and __ circulate blood to carry oxygen and nutrients to body cells

ALL structural levels working together to keep us alive

Inegumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic/ Immunity
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive

11 Systems

Skin; protects deeper tissues from injury

Muscle; allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expressions

Nerves; responds to internal and external changes

Glands; secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and metabolism

Blood vessels; transport blood carrying oxygen and nutrients

Lymphatics; picks up leaked fluid, disposes of debris, houses white blood cells. Attacks against foreign substances.

Lungs; keeps blood supplied with oxygen, removes carbon dioxide

Stomach; breaks down food

Bladder; eliminates nitrogenous wastes, regulates water, electrolytes and acid-base balance of blood

Privates; produce offspring

Maintain boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth

Eight characteristics of life

Cellular level- membrane keeps insides in and outsides out

Within body- blood, food
Whole body- locomotion

Responds to body and makes adjustments

Breakdown of food/ absorption to be used for energy

Chemical reactions of body cells, provides energy for life

Breakdown of AB -> A + B; release energy

Build-up A + B -> AB; consumes energy

Removal of waste products

Formation of new cells for growth repair, replace (cellular), production of new individual (organism)

Increase in size of body part/ organism increase size of body/ number of cells

Nutrients
Water
Oxygen
Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure

Five things necessary for survival

Energy and cell building; carbs, proteins, fats, vitamins, etc.

70% of body

Necessary for cells to generate energy

Affect rates of reactions

For adequate breathing, gas exchange

Balance of Internal Conditions

Homeostasis

Effector acts to reduce/ reverse the initial stimulus

Eat 4 jelly donuts, blood sugar goes up, insulin released, blood sugar and insulin levels go down

Effector acts to increase initial stimulus

Tear/break blood vessel, exposes collagen tissue, platelets stick to collagen fibers, platelets release chemical, pile-up of platelets cause clot

Increases risk of illness

Occupies space and has mass

Has the capacity to do work/ put matter into motion

The building blocks of matter

Inside the nucleus

In the outer orbital rings

Particle: Proton
Weight:
Charge:

Particle: Neutron
Weight:
Charge:

Particle: Electron
Weight:
Charge:

~~~~~~~~~~
|.........1 <-----|----- __(a)__
|.........H <----|------ __(b)__
|......1.008 <--|------ __(c)__
|___________|

# protons = # _____

Mass # = # ____ + # _____

Valence e- = # _____ in valence shell

Different forms of an element
Different # neutrons

Radioactive isotope- unstable isotope that gives off energy (radiation) as it converts to a more stable form

Resulting substance when two or more atoms of the same element combine

Formation of molecules when tow or more different kinds of atoms bind

Homogeneous mixtures of components that may be solids, liquids, or gases. Some composition throughout

(emulsions) are hetergeneous mixtures; their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Milky looking. Appears translucent

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out

Same
Homogeneous or Heterogeneous?

Different
Homogeneous or Heterogeneous

In which the substance is being dissolved

The substance being dissolved

unstable, valence shell not full, reactive

stable, valence shell full, non-reactive

Process where one or more electrons are transferred from the valence shell from one atom to the valence shell of another atom

Sharing of electrons to form molecular substances. Usually occur between atoms of the same elements. Also more likely to occur than ionic bonds when atom has 3, 4, 5 valence electrons

When atoms in a covalent bond don't share e- equally, it becomes _____ _____

Different areas of the molecule are slightly charged

When atoms in a covalent bond are sharing e- equally

There are two factors that determine the polarity of a covalent molecule

A weak bond in which a hydrogen atom forms a bridge between 2 e-.
Doesn't bind atoms together, but binds molecules together.

Hydrogen bonding binds ____ together.

Chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into or its constituent atoms

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms

Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction

Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction

When this increases, the kinetic energy of its particles and their collisions increase.

Chemical reactions progress rapidly when there are more reacting particles because the chance of a successful collison is greater. When the concentration of a reactant declines, the reaction slows.

Smaller particles move faster than larger ones

These are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed or part of the product without the presence of catalysts, most chemical reactions would proceed far too slowly to maintain life.

Difference between organic and inorganic compounds.

Contains carbon. Covalently bonded molecules. Many are large.

Considered all other chemicals in the body. Include water, salts, and many acids and bases.

Process by which a large molecules are synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.

A chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles

Four most common elements in the human body

Most abundant compund in the human body

Body's major macromolecules: ___, ___, ___, ___.

Building blokcs: monosaccharides

One sugar

Double Sugar

Many sugar

Carbohydrates function?

Building blocks: fatty acids and glycerol

Neutral fats (fats when solid, oils when liquid)

Function: insulate the deeper body tissues from heat loss and protect them from mechanical trauma

Modified Triglycerides. Phosphorus- containing group and two fatty acid chains.

Function: Chief material for building cellular membranes

Flat molecules made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings.

Fat soluble and contain little oxygen.

Raw material for synthesis of Vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts.

Diverse lipids found in all cell membranes.

Play role in blood clotting, regulation of blood pressure, inflamation, and labor contractions.

Building blocks: amino acids

Collagen, keratin, elastin, and certain contractile proteins of muscle.
Chief building materials of the body.

Hemoglobin, lipoproteins, albumin, insulin, antibodies.

Various functions include:
increase of rate of chemical reactions
transports oxygen in blood
transports lipids and cholesterol
prevent wide swings in blood pH
regulate metabolic activity, growth, and development
recognize and inactivate foreign substances
enhance immune and inflammatory responses
aid folding of new proteins
transport metal ions
promote breakdown of damaged proteins

Building blocks: nucleotides

Found in nucleus

Replicates itself before a cell divides AND provides the basic instructions for building every protein in the body

Located outside nucleus

Carry out instructions for protein synthesis

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

Levels of protein structure

The sequence of amino acids forms the plypeptide chain

The primary chain forms spirals (a-helices) and sheets (B-sheets)

Superimposed on secondary structure. a-Helices and/or B-sheets are folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds

Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a functional protein.

The promary chain is coiled to form a spiral structure, which is stabalized by hydrogen bonds.

Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts.

Substances that regulate and accelerate the rate of bichemical reactions but are not used up or changed in those reactions.

Consists of a nitrogen-containing base, a pentese sugar, and a phosphate group.

A=
G=
C=
T=
U=

A -> T

G -> C

U replaces T
single-strand; no bond

In nucleus
Genetic material
Directs protein synthesis
Replicates itself before cell division
Double-strand coiled into a double helix

Cytoplasm (outside nucleus)
Carries out the genetic instructions for protein synthesis
Single-stranded
Straight or folded

Most important high energy compound

ATP stands for

36 ATP are produced from each molecule of glucose during ___

1.) Two additional phosphate groups are added during breakdown of food fuels
2.) Terminal phosphate group is cleaved off, energy is released, forming ___
3.) When a terminal phosphate group is cleaved off of that, ___ is formed as a similar amount of energy is released