PSYCH 101 Exam 2

Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations they evoke in a human observer

The minimum amount of physical energy necessary to produce a sensation

A decrease in sensory response to an unchanging stimulus

Separation of sensory information into important elements

Basic elements of a stimulus, such as lines, shapes, edges, or colors

Codes used by the sense organs to transmit information to the brain

the minimum difference between two stimuli that is detectable to an observer

A sensory impression; also the process of detection physical energies with the sensory organs.

The mental process of organizing sensations into meaningful patterns

Giving priority to a particular incoming sensory message

The light-sensitive layer of cells at the back of the eye

Changes in the shape of the lens of the eyes

Difficulty focusing nearby objects (farsightedness)

difficulty focusing distant objects (nearsightedness)

Defects in the cornea, lens, or eye that cause some areas of vision to be out of focus

farsightedness caused by aging

visual receptors for colors and daylight visual acuity

Visual receptors for dim light that produce only black and white sensations

• The sharpness of visual perception
• Fovea: a small cup-shaped area in the middle of the retina contains only cones

Vision at the edges of the visual field. In the Retina, outside fovea, contain most rods, sensitive to movement

theory of color vision based on three cone types: red, green and blue. Works for cones in Retina

Theory of color vision based on three coding systems (red or green ,yellow or blue, black or white), applies in

A total inability to perceive colors

an inability to distinguish some colors

increased retinal sensitivity to light

receptor cells within the cochlea that transduce vibrations into nerve impulses. In side cochlea (snail-shaped organ that makes up the inner ear). Hair cells are part of the organ of Corti

Center part of the cohlea, containing hair cells, canals, and membranes

holds that tones up tp 4,000 hertz are converted to nerve impulses that match the frequency of each tone

theory that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea

poor transfer of sound from the eardrum to the inner ear

loss of hearing caused by damage to the inner ear hair cells or auditory nerver

Damage caused by exposing the hair cells to excessively loud sounds

The perceived size of an object remains constant, despite changes in its retinal image.

the apparen (or relative) brightness of object remains the same as long as they are illuminate dby the same amount of light

part of stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a less prominent background

• 1)Nearness: group things are closer
• 2)similarity: group things are similar
• 3)continuation, or continuity: tendency to perecive smooth continous lines
• 4)closure: tendency to "fill in"
• 5)Contiguity: tendency to perceive obj that are near in time and space
• 6)Common region: tendency to perceive elements that move together as belong together

an initial guess regarding how to organize (perceive) a stimulus pattern

the ability to see three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances

features of the environment and messages from the body that supply information about distance and space

• Perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimensional space which require two eyes
• retinal desparity: a discrepancy in the images that reach the right and left eyes->stereoscopic vision
• Convergence: lines of vision from eyes are parallel, but 50ft or closer, eyes must turn inward to focus on object

• perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimensional space which require just one eye.
• accommodation: bending of the lens to focus on nearby objects
• Pictorial depth cue: in paintings, drawings, photos, etc.

perception of space and depth caused chiefly by the fact that the eyes receive different images. caused by retinal desparity

• monocular depth cues found in paintings, drawings, and photographs that impart information about space, depth and distance.
• 1)linear perspective
• 2)relative size
• 3)height in the picture plane
• 4)light ans shadow
• 5)overlap
• 6)texture gradients
• 7)Aerial perspective
• 8)relative motion

An explanation of the moon illusion stating that the horizon seems more distant than the night sky.

a mental model of external events

Organizing perceptions by beginning with low-level features

applying higher-level knowledge to rapidly organize sensory information into a meaningful perception

A readiness to perceive in a particular manner, induced by strong expectations.

changes in percption that can be attributed to prior experience; a result of changes in how the brain processes sensory information

a misleading or distorted perception

an imaginary sensation-such as seeing, hearing, sor smelling, something that does not exist in the external world

obtaining additional information to check on the accuracy of perceptions.

two equal-length lines tipped with inward or outward pointing V's appear to be of different lengths

mental awareness of sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings.

a state of clear, organized alertness

a condition of awareness distinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness

any repeating cycle of biological activity, such as sleep and waking cycles or change in body temperature

a brief shift in brainwave patterns to those of sleep

being prevented from getting desired or needed amounts or sleep.

a major disruption of mental and emotional functioning brought about by sleep loss

a person averaging 5 hrs of sleep or less per night

a person averaging 9 hrs of sleep or more per night

A sleep-promoting substance found in the brain and spinal cord

a device designed to detect, amplify and record electrical acitivity in the brain

small, fast brainwaves associated with being awake and alert

large, slow brainwaves associated with relacation and falling asleep

4 stages, NREM(inquite sleep, stage 1-3) and REM(active sleep, stage 4)

• Stage 1, small, irregular brainwaves and some alpha waves
• Hypnic jerk: reflex muscle twitch

Distinctive bursts of brainwave activity that indicate aperson is asleep; Stage 2

Large, slow brainwaves that occur in deeper sleep (stage 3 slow wave sleep and 4)

Stage 4, deepest form of normal sleep

Swift eye movements during sleep

sleep marked by rapid eye movements and a return to stage 1 EEG patterns

• Chronic inability to get sufficient sleep; 3 types:
• 1) difficulty falling asleep
• 2) awaken easily, cant go back sleep
• 3) awakens briefly and frequently

linking a particular response with specific stimuli

sleepwalking; occurs during NREM sleep

A bad dream that occurs during REM sleep

A state of panic during NREM sleep

A sudden, irresistible sleep attack

a sudden temporary paralysis of the muscles

Repeated interruption of breathing during sleep

The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant.

The occurrence of extra rapid eye movement sleep following REM sleep deprivation

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

images in dreams that serve as visible signs of hidden ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth

an attempt to explain how dream content is affected by motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep but are not carried out.

Mental filters that hide the true meanings of dreams

combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image.

directing emotions or actions towards safe or unimportant dream images

the nonliteral expression of dream content.

making a dream more logical and complete while remembering it.

A dream in which the dreamer feels awake and capable of normal thought and action

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience

• Any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur; Two types of operant reinforcer
• Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic biological need (food)
• Secondary reinforcer: don't satisfy a basic need, but have been associated with a primary reinforcer (Token reinforcer is tangible such as $)

events that precede a response

effects that follow a response

an innate, automatic response to a stimulus (eye blink)

• A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
• Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response (food)
• Unconditioned response: an innate reflex response elicited by an UCS (salivation)
• Conditioned stimulus: a stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an UCS (bell) ->Neutral Stimulus that does not evoke a response
• Conditioned response:A learned response elicited by an CS (salivation to bell)

• learning based on the consequences of responding
• Reinforcement (increase behavior): Positive (adding something positive) and Negative (removing something negative)
• Punishment (decrease behavior):Aversive Punishment (adding something negative) and Response Cost or Time Out (removing something positive)

The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced

Reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned stimulus

Classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning; that is, a CS is used as if it were a UCS.

an anticipation concerning future events or relationships.

The weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement

The reappearance of learned response after its apparent extinction

the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to , but not identical to , a conditioned stimulus

The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning

Classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a particular stimulus

Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not

the assembly of separate responses into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern, take it step by step

The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response.

reinforement based on receiving attention, approval or affection from another person

• informational feedback
• Feedback: information returned to a person about hte effects a response has had; aka KR

receive reinforcement after every time they perform a behavior

• reinforcement is provided only part of the time (gamble); Partial reinforcement effect: responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction
• Fixed ratio Schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed # of responses have been made
• variable ratio schedule: A varied # of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. produce highest response rate, most resistant to extinction
• Fixed interval: response if reinforced after a specified period of time.
• Variable interval: response rainforced after varying period of time has passed

a rule or plain for determining which responses will be reinforced

learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus

learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort.

higher level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation

internal images or other mental representations of an area(maze, city, campus, etc) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided

Learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules

learning based on insight and understanding.

learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or nothing the consequences of those actions

A person who serves as an example in observational learning

the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information

Converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory

holding information in memory for later use

Recovering information from storage in memory

the first, normally unconscious, stage of memory, which holds an exact record of incoming information for a few seconds or less.

a mental image or visual representation

a brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard

• The memory system used to hold small amounts of information in our conscious awareness for about a dozen seconds.
• Working memory: especially used for thinking and problem solving.

The memory system used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information.

• information bits grouped into larger units.
• Information bits: meaningful units of information, such as numbers, letters, words, or phrases

Silently repeating or mentally reviewing information to hold it in short-term memory.

rehearsal that links new information with existing memories and knowledge

reorganizing or updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information

use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses.

A mdel of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information

memories that are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains of association to other, related memories

long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills

that part of long-term memory containing specific factual information

a subpart of declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world

a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places.

the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

the ability to predict beforehand whethere one will be able to remember something

to supply or reproduce memorized information with minimum of external cues

the tendency to make the most errors in remembering the middle items of an ordered list.

an ability to correctly identify previously learned information

learning again something that was previously learned. used to measure memory of prior learning.

A memory that a person is aware of having: a memory that is consciously retrieved

a memory that a person does not know exists; a memory that is retrieved unconsciously

facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories.

a graph that shows that mount of memorized information remembered after varying lengths of time

Failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory

physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that take palce when memories are stored

the fading or weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weaker

Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved

any stimulus associated with a particular memory. memory cues usually enhance retrieval

memory influence by one's bodily state at the time of learning and a the time of retrieval. Improved memory occurs when the bodily states match

• the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories and the reverse.
• Retroactive interference: the tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories
• Proactive interference: the tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories

Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

Mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another.

unconsciously pushing unwanted memories out of awareness

a conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness

memories created at times of high emotion that seem especially vivid.

Loss of memory for events that preceded a head injury o other amnesia-causing event.

Loss of the ability to form or retrieve memories for events that occur after an injury or trauma.

process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain

A Brain structure associated with emotion and the transfer of information form short-term memory to long-term memory

A practice schedule that alternates study periods with brief rests

A practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

the exact dictionary definition of a word or concept; its objective meaning

The subjective, personal, or emotional meaning of a word or concept

The study of meanings in words and language

The basic speech sounds of a language

The smallest meaningful units in a language, such as syllables or words

a program in which English-speaking children and children with limited English proficiency are taught half the day in English and half in a second language

Rules by which a simple declarative sentence may be changed to other voices or forms (past tense, passive voice, and so forth)