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Anatomy
Greek � Ana = Up & Tome = a cutting
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What is anatomy?
- The science of the structure of a living organism and the relation of its parts
- Subdivided
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What is Surface morphology ?
how internal structures relate to the skins surface
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What is Gross Anatomy?
(macroscopic)
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What is Cytology? (cytological anatomy)
cells
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What is Histology? (histological)
tissues
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What is organology?
organs
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What is Radiographic anatomy?
internal structures as visualized by x-ray images or specialized scanning procedures.
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What is Neuroanaomy?
structure of the nervous system.
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What is Developmental anatomy?
changes throughout life � structural changes
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What is Embryology?
developmental changes before birth
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What is Pathology?
pathological � structural changes because of disease
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What is Comparative anatomy?
compare structures across different organisms
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What is Surgical anatomy?
gross anatomy with a twist
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What are the two approaches to anatomy?
- Systemic/systematic approach
- Regional approach � cadaver
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What is Physiology?
Science of the functions of a living organism
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What are the "Factors" involved in physiology?
- Physical factors (physics)
- Chemical Factors (Chemistry)
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What is the Processes involved in studing physiology?
- Sub division �System�
- E.g. cardiovascular physiology�renal physiology�
- Major Emphasis on cellular and muscular events
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Bottom line: Anatomy is the Body�s
Architecture
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Bottom line: Physiology is the Body�s
working Nature
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Principal of Complementary of Structure and Function
- Structure --> f(x)
- f(x)---> structure
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What are the Levels of structural organization
Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissue level, organ level, system level and organism level
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What is the chemical level?.
Atoms Molecules
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What is the Cellular Level
- Cell = basic living structure and functional unit of the body
- Tissue level
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What is the tissue level?
Tissue = aggregate of similarly specialized cells along with the extracellular material united to perform a particular function
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What are the 4 basic tissues (General)
Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscle tissue, Nervous tissue.
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What is the Epithelium?
- covers and lines body surfaces; helps to form glands
- Have a free surface � closely packed
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What is Connective Tissue, and what does it consist of?
- binds together, defense, support to the body.
- Consists of cells, fibers, and grond substance
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What is Muscle Tissue used for, what are its identifying characteristic?
- � movement
- Cross striations
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What is Nervous Tissue used for, what are its identifying characteristic?
- - communication
- Cells with long processes
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What is an Organ?
Organ = structure with a definite form and function; composed of 2 or more tissues
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What is a system?
System = a set of interconnected or interdependent organs that function together in a common purpose
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What is the Organism Level?
= sum total of all structural levels working together to keep you alive
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Integumentary system functions include?
forms external body covering; protection; temperature regulation; waste elimination; vitamin D synthesis
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Integumentary system organs/structures include?
- Skin,
- Hair,
- nails,
- Sweat glands,
- Sebaceous glands�
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Skeletal system functions include?
Supports and protects body; Leverage; Stores minerals; Blood cells form within bone cavities
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Skeletal system organs/structures include?
- Bones (e.g. Frontal b., clavicle, rib�),
- Cartilages...
- (& Joints)
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Muscular system functions include?
- Movement;
- Thermo genesis;
- Maintains posture
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Muscular system organs/structures include?
- Skeletal muscles (e.g. deltoideus, gluteus maximus, trapezius�)
- (smooth muscle & cardiac muscle)
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Nervous system functions include?
Regulates the body activities though nerve impulse
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Nervous system organs/structures include?
- Brain,
- spinal cord,
- cranial nerves,
- spinal nerves,
- sensory organs�
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Endocrine system functions include?
Regulates the body activities through hormones
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Endocrine system organs/structures include?
- Ovary,
- pancreas,
- parathyroid gland,
- pituitary,
- suprarenal gland,
- testis,
- thymus,
- thyroid gland,
- various endocrine cells�
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Cardiovascular system functions include?
- Transports O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc.
- Protects against disease and hemorrhage.
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Cardiovascullar system organs/structures include?
Heart, blood vessels, Blood
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Lymphatic system functions include?
- Filters body fluids;
- Produces white blood cells;
- Involved in immune response
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Lymphatic system organs/structures include?
- Lymph nodes,
- spleen,
- thymus,
- tonsil�.,
- lymphatic vessels.
- Lymph
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Respiratory system functions include?
- Gaseous exchange;
- Helps regulate acid/base balance of blood
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Respiratory system organ/structures include?
Larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus�
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Digestive system functions include?
- Physical and chemical breakdown of food;
- absorption of food products;
- elimination of undigested foodstuffs in feces
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Digestive system organ/structure includes?
- Gastrointestinal tract
- (esophagus,
- stomach,
- small intestine,
- large intestine�),
- Gall bladder,
- Liver,
- Pancreas,
- Salivary glands,
- Teeth
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Urinary system functions include?
- Elimination of nitrogenous wastes in urine;
- regulates water, electrolyte and acid/base balance of blood.
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Urinary system organs/structure includes?
- Kidney,
- Ureter,
- urinary bladder,
- urethra
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Reproductive system functions include?
Propagation of species
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Reproductive system organs/structures include?
- Testis,
- prostate gland,
- penis...
- Ovary,
- uterine tube,
- uterus�
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Basic survival needs include the metabloism, what is Metabolism?
Sum of all biochemical reactions that occur within an organism, including anabolic and catabolic reactions.
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What is the Intake of food?
Ingestion
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What is the Breakdown of food into usable material?
Digestion
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What is the Uptake of substances by cells?
Absorption
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What is the Build up of absorbed substances into different materials that are required by the cells; The incorporation digested �food� into living tissues?
Assimilation
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What is the Generation of energy (cellular level)?
Respiration
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What is the Production and release of useful substances?
Secretion
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What is the Elimination of wastes?
Excretion
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What is the Ability to receive and respond to stimuli?
Excitability or irritability (responsiveness)
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What is the Ability to carry out the effect of a stimulus from one part of the cell to another?
Conductivity
- What is the Ability of cells or parts of cells to actively generate force to undergo shortening and changing form for movement?
- Contractility
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What is the Increase in size called?
Growth
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What is the Acquisition of specific function(s) and. /or structure different from the original general type?
Differentiation
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What is Either the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement; or the production of a new individual?
Reproduction
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What is the Anatomical Position?
� standing; facing the observer; upper limbs are at the sides with palms forward; feet are forward and slightly apart.
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What region is Abdominal
Abdomen
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What region is Acromial
Point of shoulder
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What region is Antebrachial
Forearm
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What region is Antecubital
Front of elbow
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What region is Appendicular
Limbs
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What region is Axial
Main body axis
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What region is Axillary
Armpit
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What region is Brachial
Arm
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What region is Buccal
Cheek
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What region is Calcaneal
Heel
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What region is Carpal
Wrist
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What region is Cephalic
Head
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What region is Cervical
Neck
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What region is Cranial
Part of the skull that houses the brain
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What region is Crural
Leg
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What region is Digital
Fingers or toes
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What region is Dorsal or dorsum
Back
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What region is Facial
Part of the skull that forms the face
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What region is Femoral
Thigh
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What region is Frontal
Forehead
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What region is Gluteal
Buttocks
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What region is Hallux
Big toe
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What region is Inguinal
Groin
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What region is Lumbar
Loin (lower back)
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What region is Mammary
Breast
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What region is Manual or manus
Hand
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What region is Mental
Chin
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What region is Metacarpal
Area of hand between wrist and fingers
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What region is Metatarsal
Area of foot between ankle and toes
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What region is Nasal
Nose
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What region is Occipital
Back of head; base of skull
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What region is Olecranal
Back of elbow
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What region is Oral
Mouth
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What region is Orbital
Eye
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What region is Palmar
Palm
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What region is Patellar
Anterior knee
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What region is Pedal
Food
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What region is Pelvic
Pelvis
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What region is Perineal
Region between anus and external genitalia
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What region is Peroneal or fibular
Side of leg
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What region is Phalangeal
Fingers or toes
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What region is Plantar
Sole of foot
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What region is Pollex
Thumb
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What region is Popliteal
Back of knee
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What region is Pubic
Genital region
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What region is Sacral
Posterior area between the hips
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What region is Scapular
Shoulder blade area
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What region is Sternal
Breastbone
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What region is Sural
Calf region
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What region is Tarsal
Ankle
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What region is Thoracic
Chest
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What region is Trunk
The body excluding the head, neck and limbs
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What region is Umbilical
Navel region
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What region is Vertebral
Spinal column region
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what do Planes of the body refer to?
Imaginary flat lines that passes thought the body and/or its parts
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When a plane passes through the body in a way that �separates� its parts into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions, then it is called a ?
Frontal or coronal plane
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When a plane passes through the body in a way that �separates� its parts into equal right and let portions, then it is called a?
Midsagittal plane
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When a plane passes through the body in a way that �separates� its parts into unequal right and let portions, then it is called a
Sagittal or parasagittal plane
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When a plane passes through the body in a way that �separates� its parts into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) portions, then it is called a
Transverse or horizontal plane
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What do Sections though a body refer to?
Actual cut made along a plane
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If a cut is made along (parallel to) the long axis of the body or part then it is called a
Longitudinal section
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A frontal section is a
Longitudinal section that passes along a frontal plane
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A Midsagittal section is a
Is a longitudinal section that passes along a Midsagittal plane
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A Sagittal section is a
Longitudinal section that passes along a Sagittal plane
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If a cut is made perpendicular to the long axis of the body or a part, than it is called a
Transverse or cross section
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A cross section passes along a
Transverse plane
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If a cut is made at an angel (but not 90deg), then it is called an oblique section.
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Anterior means?
Near to or the front of the body
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Ventral means?
Near to or at the front of the body
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Posterior means?
Near to or at the back of the body
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Dorsal means?
Near to or at the back of the body
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Lateral means?
Farther from the midline of the body or structure
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Medial means?
Nearer to the midline of the body or structure
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Median means?
Lying In the midline � central position
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Intermediate means?
Between two structures
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Superior means?
Toward the head or upper part of the structure
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Cepahlic means?
Toward the head or upper part of the structure
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Cranial means?
Toward the head or upper part of the structure
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Inferior means?
Away from the head, closer to the lower part
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Caudal means?
Away from the head, closer to the lower part
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Proximal means?
Nearer to the point of origin or trunk attachment
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Distal means?
Farther to the point of origin or trunk attachment
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Superficial means?
Toward or on the body surface
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Deep means?
Away from the body surface
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Parietal?
Pertaining to or forming the outer wall of a body cavity
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Visceral?
Pertaining to or forming the outer covering of an organ within a body cavity
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Ipsilaterial?
On the same side
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Contralaterial?
On the opposite side
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Prone?
The body when lying face downward
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Supine?
The body when lying face upward
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The Dorsal body cavity holds the ?
cranial cavity and the vetebral cavity
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The Cranial cavity contains?
- Cranial bones (skull)
- Brain
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The Veterbreal canal contains?
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The Ventral body cavity contains the
- Thoracic cavity
- Abdominoplevic cavity
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The Mediastinum is what? and what does it contain?
- Region of the thoracic between the lungs;
- between the sternum and vertebral column;
- contains the trachea, bronchial tubes, esophagus, heart, vessels and CT
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The Serous membrane within the ventral body cavity included the :
- Pleura
- Pericardium
- Peritoneum
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What is the serous membrane?
a thin double-layer membrane with a Fluid filled cavity between the layers (visceral layer and parietal layer)
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Retroperitoneal means what and where is it?
- behind the peritoneum
- Between the wall and the parietal peritoneum;
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What is Mesentery:
double layer of peritoneum
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What does mesentery do?
Supports intestines and �transports� vessels and nerves back and forth
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Right upper quadrant houses?
- Right lobe of liver
- Pylorus of stomache
- Gallbladder
- Duodenum
- Head of pancreas
- Right kidney
- Right suprarenal gland
- Part of ascending colon(large)
- Part of transverse colon(large)
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Right lower quadrant houses?
- Cecum(large)
- Appendix
- Mostof ileum(small)
- Part of ascendingcolon
- Right ovary
- Right uterine tube
- Part of right Ureter
- Part of right spermatic cord
- Uterus if enlarged
- Urinary bladderif very full
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Left upper quadrat houses?
- Left lobe of liver
- Spleen
- Stomach
- Jejunum and proximal ileum
- Pancreas
- Left kidney
- Left supernal gland
- Part of transverse colon
- Part of descending colon
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Left lower quadrant houses?
- Part of descending colon
- Sigmoid colon
- Left ovary
- Left Ureter
- Part of left spermatic cord
- Uterus if enlarged
- Urinary bladder if very full
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what is Homeostasis?
Tendency toward stability in the normal states
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Internal environment--extracellular fluid?
Fluid surrounding all body cells
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Locations of extracellular fluid, Within blood vessels?
� plasma
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Locations of extracellular fluid, Between cells in tissues
� intercellular fluid, interstitial fluid, or tissue fluid.
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Blood --> capillary --> interstitial area -->blood & lymphatic system
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Extracellular fluid in certain organ cavities, Central nervous system?
cerebral spinal fluid
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Extracellular fluid in certain organ cavities, Synovial joints = synovial fluid
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Extracellular fluid in certain organ cavities,Inner ear =
endolymph
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Extracellular fluid in certain organ cavities, Eyes =
ocular fluids
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Organisms in homeostasis when?
Contain optimal levels of [gasses, nutrients, ions, and water] at an optimal temperature and pressure
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Whar changes optimal conditions?
Stresses change optimal conditions
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What does Disturb homeostasis mean?
Event that creates an imbalance in your internal environment
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What are the Types of stress the disturb homeostasis?
- Exogenous stress � temp extreme, noise, lack of O2, pressure change
- Endogenous stress � BP, tumors
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What are Exogenous stressors?
temp extreme, noise, lack of O2, pressure change
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What are Endogenous stress?
BP, tumors
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Ways to counteract stress and restore homeostasis is Mediated by two body systems which include?
- Nervous system = fast acting; short duration; impulses
- Endocrine system = slow acting; long duration; hormones
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If response decreases the stimulus and shuts off the loop it is a
- Negative feedback
- Output of the body�counter acts�input of the stress
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If response increases the stimulus and the loop is enhanced it is a
- Positive feedback
- Output of the body�intensifies�input of the stress
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Plasma membrane = Plasmalemma which means?
Plasma = fluid� Lemma = Husk
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Muscle cells are known as
sarcolemma
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Nerve fiber are known as
axolemma
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Functions of the plasma membrane?
Separates internal environments of the cell from neighboring cells and from external environment
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Structural chemical components of the plasma membrane
Lipids � form a bilayer (primarily phospholipids with some cholesterol and gylcolipids
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What are Phospholipids
- Molecules with a charged end (polar) and an electorally neutral or (non polar) end
- The Polar head hydrophilic and nonpolar tail hydrophobic
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What is Cholesterol?
a Sterol lipid that is weakly charged;
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What do cholesterol do for the plasma membrane?
- Wedges between phospholipids
- Strengthens the membrane; helps stabilize it
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What are Glycoloipds?
Phospholipids and attached carbohydrate groups;
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Where are glycolipids located?
only on outer membrane surface; helps form coating glycocalyx
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What is a Lipid rafts?
- �Patches� of lipids, especially cholesterol;
- On outer membrane surface; may be involved in cell signaling
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What do Proteins do for the plasma membrane?
� provide selective channels for transporting certain molecules binding sites; enzymes;
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Integral proteins are located where ?
- Embedded in the phospholipids bilayer
- Either extend from one side to the other side of the bilayer or are closer to one side then the other
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What are the Functions of integral proteins?
- Aid in forming channels thought the phospholipids bilayer
- Act as carriers
- Form receptor sites
- Help in the recognition of cells, foreign substances, hormones, nutrients�
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Peripheral proteins are located where?
Loosely bond to phospholipids surface
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What are the Functions of peripheral proteins?
- May act as:
- Enzymes
- Structural components
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What is the Fluid mosaic model
discribes the structure of the cell membrane
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Functions of a cell membrane
- *Provide a flexible boundary that encloses cellular contents and separates them from the environment
- *Facilitates contact
- *Provides receptors for hormones, chemicals, nutrients and antibodies
- *Mediates the entrance and exit of materials. It has a selective permeability.
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What is selective permeability?
Permits certain substances to enter/exit the cell but restricts passage of other materials
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Permeable means?
item can cross
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Factors affecting permeability include:
- *Size of molecule
- Large will not pass
- *Solubility in lipid
- Greater lipid solubility, the greater the permeability
- *Charge on molecule
- Greater the charge the lower the permeability
- *Presence of carrier molecules (integral proteins)
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Movement of materials across the cell membrane, Passive process
- Move substances down or with a concentration gradient
- Movement continues until no net movement (reaches equilibrium)
- Simple diffusion
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Simple diffusion:
- Substances move from the higher concentration area to the area of lower concentration
- Movement continues until substances reach an equilibrium; no net movement
- Diffusion of O2and CO2 in the lungs and body tissues
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Facilitated diffusion:
- Substances move down a concentration gradient
- Involved integral proteins (channel mediated or carried mediated)
- Lipid insoluble molecules may be transported in this way (sugars)
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Osmosis
Movement of water down a concentration gradient; no energy expended, water passes thought the channels but is not �carried� by the integral proteins.
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Erythrocytes and normal saline solution (0.85%)
- solution where the total [h2O molecules + solute molecules] are equal on both sides of the membrane.
- No net movement of H2O is what kind of a
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Erythrocytes and 10% salt solution 10% salt solution is __________ as compared the erythrocyte; Movement of h2o out of the cell; Cell shrinks
�Hypertonic�
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Erythrocytes and distilled water Distilled h2o is a _______ solution as compared to the erythrocyte Movement of water into the cell Cell will swell and rupture
�hypotonic�
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Filtration can be done by
- *Movement of substances down a concentration gradient; �forced diffusion�
- *Passage of solvents and solutes across a semi permeable membrane as a result of a mechanical force (gravity or hydrostatic pressure)
- *Mechanism for molecules leaving the blood capillaries
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Active Processes is when
- Substances moved against or up a concentration gradient with the expenditure of energy
- From a lower concentration to a higher concentration. ATP (ATPase^)? ADP + pi + Energy
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Active Transport
- *Materials are moved against their concentration gradient
- *Energy is used and integral proteins are involved
- *Important mechanism for maintaining [ions] within cells i.e. Sodium Potassium pump
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Bulk Transport � Vesicular Transport
*Transports large particles of macromolecules (uses energy)
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Exocytosis:
- Export of substances from the cell
- Secretion of hormones and neuro transmitters
- Sometimes excretion of waste materials
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Endocytosis:
- Substances are taken into the cell from the outside
- As substances are brought into the cell, the plasma membrane surrounds the substance. It then pinches off from the rest of the membrane to form a �sac� around the substance.
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Phagocytosis
- Cell eating; engulfs solids
- Pseudo podia surrounds the particle. It engulfs it and closes off, then the phagocytic vacuole pinches off and the contents of the vacuole are held or broken down
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Pinocytosis
- Cell drinking; Engulfs fluids
- No Pseudo Podia; Membrane invaginates. It takes the fluid inside the cell
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Receptor-mediated Endocytos
- is For hormones, lipoproteins, Iron.
- No pseudopodia are formed/
- Forms a �Coated Vesicle�
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Cytoplasm
Cellular material between the cell membrane and the nucleus
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Cytosol
- *Thick, semitransparent, elastic fluid
- *Suspends the other elements
- *Includes: Water (75-90%), Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates, & inorganic substances
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Organelles
Specialized parts of a tissue cell that perform some individual functions
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Non-membranous organelles
Lack their own membrane; Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton, Centrioles
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Membranous organelles
Have their own membrane; Mitochondria, Golgi Complex, ER, Lysosomes, Perixisomes
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Inclusions
- Chemicals substances that is present in the cell
- Example: Stored nutrients; Glycogen and Lipids
- Pigments; Melanin
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General functions of the cytoplasm
Provide the site for the cell function where most cell functions or activities occur
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What are Organelles �Little Organs�
Specialized part of a tissue cell that performs some individual function
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Organelles Includes 2 types of what?
membranous organelles and nonmembranous organelles
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What is a Nucleus?
- Spherical, oval or elongated in shape; usually one per cell; has four components
- *Nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane is a
- Double membrane barrier of the nucleus
- *Outer layer may be continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and/or studded with ribosomes
- *Inner layer may have an associated layer of protein filaments (contributes to the shape of the nucleus)
- *Perinuclear space � space between the two layers
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Nuclear pores:
- openings that pass through the nuclear envelope
- Permit communication between the cytoplasm and the nucleus
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Nucleolus
- *Spherical structure within the nucleus; one or two per cell
- *Not membrane bound
- *Site of RNA synthesis and storage
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Nucleoplasm
- *Fluid which suspends the nucleolus and chromatin
- *Includes proteins, metabolites, ions and a nucleoskeleton
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Chromatin
- *coiled strands of DNA bound to basic proteins (histones)
- When a cell is ready to divide, chromatin coils and condenses to form chromosomes
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Functions of nucleus:
contains the cell�s genetic material and directs all cell activities
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Ribosomes
- *Not membrane bound
- *Ribosomal RNA + protein
- *2 subunits if unequal size
- * �Free� ribosomes
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Free Ribosomes
� protein synthesis (use inside the cell)
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�Bound� ribosomes
Attach to other organelles; protein synthesis (Export)
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous network of tubular channels � system of paired membranes
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2 types of ER
- Granular (RER)
- Agranular (SER)
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Functions of the RER
- Modifies proteins
- Makes proteins for export from the cell
- Makes components of the membrane
- Primarily protein synthesis and membrane production
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Functions of the SER
- Lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis...
- Makes steroid based hormones
- Detoxification of drugs
- Absorption, breakdown, and transports of fats (intestine)
- Affects calcium ions availability in sarcoplasm �Sarcoplasmic Reticulum�
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Golgi complex
- Series of flattened sacs with expanded vesicles near/at their ends
- Stacks sacs = �cisternae�
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3 types goigi based on function:
Cis, medial and Trans.
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What does the goigi do?
Acts as a major processing center for proteins and membranes (made by RER) Change, concentrate, and package proteins and membranes. For export and in cell use.
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Mitochondria
- *Rod like organelles enclosed by two membranes
- *Outer membrane is smooth
- *Inner membrane has folds called Cristae
- Matrix: Gel like material within the mitochondrion
- Numerous in active cells
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Functions of mitochondria?
Generate or produce ATP & metabolic water
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Lysosomes
Membrane bound sphere; contains digestive enzymes
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Functions of lysosomes?
- Digest: worn out organelles, particles engulfed by cell
- Participate in a variety of cell functions
- Glycogen breakdown; bone resorbtion
- Remove non useful tissues; menses
- Digest the cell itself f- autolysis
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Perixisomes
- *Membrane bound sphere
- *Contains powerful digestive enzymes � detoxify harmful substances
- Free radicals ^Oxidases ? hydrogen peroxide ^catalase ? Water
- *Abundant in hepatocytes and kidney cells
- *Looks like a small lysosome
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Microfilaments
- *Cytoskeleton element
- *Thread-like; occur in bundles; not membrane bound
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2 common types of microfilaments include?
Actin & Myosin (types of proteins)
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Functions of microfilaments?
- Give cells shape and support
- Muscular cells contraction
- Cellular movement and change shape
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Microtubules
- *Cytoskeleton element
- *Hollow unbranches; dispersed in the cytoplasm; not membrane bound
- *Tubulin � protein
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Functions of microtubules?
- Gives the cell shape and support
- Helps form cilia, flagella, Centrioles and mitotic spindle apparatus
- Conduction channels?
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Centrosome (centrosophere)
- *Dense area near the nucleus; not membrane bound
- *Contains 2 Centrioles
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Centriole
- Cylindrical structure composed of microtubules
- Contains their own DNA
- Important in cell division
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Cilia (type of surface modification or cellular extension)
- Cytoplasmic projections (relatively short)
- Converted by the cell membrane core of microtubule
- Moves substances along cell surface
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Flagella (type of surface modification or cellular extension)
- Cytoplasmic projections (relatively long)
- Coveered by the cell membrane; core of microtubules
- Move entire cell
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Microvilli (type of surface modification or cellular extension)
- Cytoplasmic projections (relatively short)
- Covered by cell membrane; core of microfilaments
- Absorption, export
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Cell inclusions
- *Any foreign or heterogeneous substances contained in a cell; not introduced as trauma
- *Diverse group of materials
- *Storage materials; glycogen, lipids;
- *Pigments; melanin � protects from UV light
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Extracellular material
- *Usually produced by the cells
- *Body fluids, cellular secretions, and framework (matrix) in which cells are embedded
- *Outside the cells
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Example of matrix components, Hyaluronic acid
- Viscous, fluid-like material
- Found in many tissues
-
Functions of hyaluronic acid?
Binds cells, lubricates joints, maintains eyeball shape, and provides a barrier
-
Example f matrix components, Chondrotin sulfate
- Jelly like material
- Found in bone and cartilage
-
Functions of chondrotin sulfate?
support & adhesiveness
-
Example of matrix components, Connective tissue fibers
Provides support and strength to tissues
-
3 types of connective tissues?
- Collagen fiver (pink) � strength; tendons
- Elastic fibers (black/purple) � stretch; aorta
- Reticular fibers � forms a 3-d meshwork that holds the cells within an organ; lymph node.
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Modification of he cell surface & plasma membrane include 6 things which are?
Microvilli, cilia, flagella, sereocilia, junctional complexes, myelin sheath.
-
Microvillies/microvilli
- *Small finger like projections of the cell
- *Core of microfilaments
- *Absorbtion and export
- *Increase surface area
-
Stereocilia
- *Long branching, slender projections
- *Core of microfilaments
- *Absorbtion
-
Junctional complexes (membrane junctions)
- *Many specific types
- *All hold cells together
- *Other functions related to the structure
- *Desmosome
- *Gap junction
-
Myelin sheath
- *Specialization of the cell membrane of special cells in the nervous system
- *Insulates axolemma
- Cell membrane of axon
-
Tissue:
group of similar cells and their intercellular substance. That functions to perform a specialized activity.
-
Intercellular substance
- *Non living
- *Secreted and maintained by cells
-
Epithelial Tissue Has a free surface and there are 2 types
Covering and lining, and granular.
-
Covering and lining epithelial do what?
- Cover body and organ surface
- Line body and organ cavities
-
Granular epithelial tissues does what?
Forms glands
-
Connective tissue is composed of what?
*Cells, fibers, ground substance
-
Funcion of connective tissue?
*Supports and protects the body, bind structures together
-
Muscle tissue
- *Contractile tissue
- *Movement
-
Nervous Tissue
- *Communication
- *Excitable and conductile tissue
- *Initiation and transmission of nerve impulses
-
Epithelium:
tissue composed of closely packed cells with little or in intercellular substance
-
2 types based on function
-
Characteristics of all epithelial tissue
- *Free surface (skin, cavity lumen)
- *Cells are tightly packed and held together by junctional complexes; little to no intercellular material; avascular; good regenerative ability
-
General functions of epithelial tissue
*Protection, absorption, secretion, excretion�
-
Simple
� single layer of cells
-
Stratified
� many layers of cells
-
Pseudostratified
� all cells touching the BL but only some cells reach the free surface
-
-
Cuboidal
� as tall as it is wide
-
Columnar
� taller then wide
-
Transitional
� shape changes as organ stretches or relaxes
-
Simple squamous epithelium
- *Bouman�s capsule (kidney), Alveoli (lung), endothelium (blood vessels)
- *Functions: Filtration, diffusion, secretion.
-
Simple cuboidal epithelium
- *Renal tubules; ducts of small glands�
- *Function: secretion and absorption
-
Simple columnar epithelium
- *Lines stomach to anal canal, gall bladder;
- *Function: absorption and secretion
-
Stratified squamous epithelium
(keratinized (cells at FS lack nucleolus), nonkeratinized (cells at FS have nuclei))
-
Keratinized
� Epidermis of skin
-
Nonkeratinized
� Lines mouth and esophagus
-
Function of stratified squamous epithelium:
Protection
-
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
- *Usually two rows of cells
- *Ducts of sweat glands, rare
- *Function: Lining
-
Stratified columnar epithelium
- *Usually 2-3 rows of cells, rare
- *Lines larger ducts
- *Function: Lining and Secretion?
-
Stratified transitional epithelium
- *Cell shape at FS changes
- *Urinary bladder
- *Function: permits distension (stretching)
-
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (ciliated or with stereo cilia)
*All cells touch the BL but they do not all reach the FS
-
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Ciliated
- � Trachea
- *Function: Lining, secretion, and moves materials over the free surface
-
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Stereo cilia
- � epididymis
- *Function: Lining, secretion, absorption
-
Glandular Epithelium
- *Specialized for secretion
- *Synthesized �secretions� � extracellular
- *Compartments (duct, body surface, blood)
-
2 types of glands
- *Exocrine glands
- Secretes directly to body surface from the duct
- *Endocrine glands
- Hormones � blood
-
Exocrine glands
Secretes directly to body surface from the duct
-
Endocrine glands
- *Hormones � blood
- *No ducts involces in hormone transport
- *Pancreas � endo & exo
-
Functional classification of exocrine glands; Merocrine Gland
- Without loss of any part of the cell
- Most exocrine glands
-
Functional classification of exocrine glands; Holocrine Gland
- Entire cell and its products are released
- Sebaceous gland
-
Functional classification of exocrine glands; Apocrine Gland
- Product is released with some of its apical cytoplasm
- Some sweat glands (axilla, genitalia and areolae)
-
Structural classification of Exocrine Glands
- *Unicellular gland
- E.g. Goblet cell ? secretes mucus
- *Multicellular glands (with ducts)
-
Do the ducts branch?
- *Unbranched-------? simple
- *Branched ------? compound
-
-
-
What is the shape of the gland�s secretory potion?
- *Tubular
- *Alveolar or acinar (sac = acinus or alveolus)
-
Single unbranched duct + secratory protein that has a linear aggangemens of its cells.
Intestinal gland. � Simple tubular gland.
-
Single unbranched duct + twisted arrangement of the linear shapped secratory protein.
Eccrine sweat gland. - Simple coiled tubular gland.
-
Single, unbrandched duct + two/or more �linear� secratory protein portions
Gastric gland � simple branched tubular gland
-
Single, unbranched duct + �sac like� secretory protein
Simple alveolar gland
-
Single unbranched dubt with two/or more �sac like� secretory proteins draining into the duct
Sabecious gland � simple branched alveolar gland
-
Hierachy of ducts (i.e. small ducts draining into medium-sized ducts daining into larger ducts) + linear secratory protein
Brunners gland (in duodenum) � compound tubular gland
-
Hierarchy of ducts (i.e. small ducts draining into medium-sized ducts draining into larger ducts) + sac like secratory protein
Exocring pancreas - Compound alveolar gland
-
Hierachy of ducts (i.e. small ducts draining into medium-sized ducts daining into larger ducts) + secratory proteins with both shapes
Salivary glands � compound tubule alveolar gland
-
Connective Tissue; General Characteristics
- *Diverse group
- *Consists of:
- *Cells, fibers, ground substance, and matrix.
-
Functions of CT?
- *Provides structure
- Capsule of organs; internal framework of organs and body.
- E.g. bone, cartilage
- *Defense
- Phagocytic cells; pplasma cells-? antibodies
- *Medium for diffusion
-
Ground Substance
- Amorphous, colorless, transparent and homogenous material
- Function: Filler, lubricant, barrier, medium for diffusion.
- Examples � hylauronic acid and chondrotin sulfate
-
Fibers - 3 types?
Collagenous fiber, elastic fiber, reticular fiber
-
Collagenous fiber
- Collagen; synthesized by many cells
- Inelastic but slightely flexible
-
Elastic fiber
- Elastin; synthesized by fibroblasts
- Tinner then collagen; form irregular networks
- Highly flexible
-
Reticular Fiber
- Collagen + glycoprotein
- Very thin, branching fibers; forms a �reticulum� � 3-D lattice that provides internal support (for an organ)
- Produced by fibroblasts and reticular cells
- Wound healing/ repair
-
Connective tissue cells; Fibroblasts
- Most common connective tissue type
- Flattened cell with branching processes; large somewhat flattened nucleus
- Synthesized fibers and ground substamce (structural function)
- Important in tissue regeneration
-
Connective tissue cells; Macrophage
- Irregular shape; membrane has surface folding; large eccentrically placed nucleus
- Phagocytic cell (defense function)
- Present in most organs and become very active and more numerous in areas of inflammation
-
Mast cell
Large oval/round cell; centrally placed nucleus; lost of cytoplasmic granules
-
Cytoplasmic granules
- *Herpain = anti coagulant
- *Histamine = vasodilater; increased capillary permeability
-
Release pharmacologically active substances
- *Prevent blood clotting bessels
- *Increase vessel permeability; may be important in the normal functioning vessels
- *Actively involved in sensitivity reactions
-
Plasma cell
- Ovoid cell; eccentrically placed, clockfaced nucleus
- Numerous in sites of bacterial penetration and chronic inflammation
- Produces antibodies (defense against antigens)
-
Adipocyte
- Fat cell � alone or in groups
- Energy reservoir � stores lipids
- White adiocyte � single lipid droplet; large cell; flattened. Peripherally placed nucleus
- bown adipocyte � multiple lipid drop; small cell; centrally placed nucleus
-
Leukocyte - white blood cells
- Eosinophil, basophil, neutrophil, lymphocyte and monocyte
- May or may not include:
- Specific granules in cytoplasm
- A multibodied nucleus
- Migrate across capillary wall into the eusrrounding connective tiussue
- defense
-
Types of connective tissue
- *Embryonic connective tissue
- *Adult CT
-
Embryonic CT
- *Primarily in the embryo or fetus
- *Mesenchyme
- *Mesenchymal cells embedded in a fluid substance � all CT in embryonic period
- *Differentiates into all other CT
- *Can persist in adult: around blood vessels
- Mesenchyme cells --> fibroblast
-
Wharton�s jelly or mucous connective tissue
- Only in fetus --> unbilical cord
- Abundance of ground substance ---> + collagen fiber and fibroblasts
- support
-
Adult connective tissue - Loose Connetive tissue or areolar connective tissue
- *Loosely arranged fibers and cells in a semifluid ground substance
- *Strength, elasticity and support
- *Papillary layer of dermis; hypodermis;
- *Lamina propria; around nerves and blood vessels
- *Well vascularized
-
Adipose tissue
- *Specialized form of loost CT
- *Primarily adipocytes; stores lipid/fat droplets
- *White adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue
- *Energy reserve, support, protection and thermoregulation
- *WAT � hypodermis, joints, heart surface
- *BAT � limited
-
Dense connective tissue
- *Densly packed fibers with less ground substance than in loose CT
- *Collagenious fiber
-
Dense regular connective tissue
- *Collagen fibers in the same direction; fibroblasts in rows between fibers; ground substance present
- In areas of unidirectional tensions
-
-
-
Aponeurosis
� flat band of CT, connects either - muscle to muscle or muccle to bone
-
Dense irregular connective tissue
- *Collagen fibers in many directions; scattered cells; ground substance present
- *In areas of multidimensional tensions
- *Fascia, capsules of organs; reticular layer of dermis; pericardium � cartilage, periosteum - bone
-
Elastic connective tissue
- *Predominately elastic fibers; fibroblasts & Ground substance
- *In areas requiring some degree of stretching
- *Walls of large arteries, larynx, trachea. Some broncihial tubes
-
Reticular connective tissue
- *Predominately reticular fibers; reticular cells, fibroblasts, and ground substance
- Forms the stroma in some organs
- Spleen, liver, lymphnodes
- Provides strength and support
- Stroma
- � supporting component of an organ (CT)
-
Parenchyma
� functional component of an organ (epithelium)
-
Adult connective tissue
- � cartilage
- - Chondrocyte - mature cartliage cell
- - Lacuna
- - matrix of ground substance with a dense network of fibers
- - Perichondrium
- - avascualr tissue
-
General structure of Adult CT?
- Chondrocyte � mature cartilage cell
- Isogenous group or cell nest
- 2 or more chondrocytes in same lacuna
-
Lacuna
� space in matrix that houses the cell
-
Hyaline cartilage
- *Primarily collagen fibers; scattered chondrocytes
- *Most abundant form of cartilage
- Articular cartilage, costal cartilage, wa in upper respiratory tract organs, embryo skin
- *Flexible but provides support
-
Fibrocarrtliage
- *Has ability to withstand greater stress and compression that hyaline cartilage
- *Primarily collagenous fivers in bundles or rows (herring bone pattern);chondrocytes in rows
- *No true perichondrium
- *Support and fusion
- e.g. Intebral disc, menisci of knee, pubic symphesis
-
Elastic cartilage
- *Primarily elastic fibers
- *Increased flexibility while maintaining strength
- e.g.External ear, eustachian tube
-
Major types of Membranes
� epithelial and synovial
-
Epithelial membranes
- Epithelium + CT layer � 3 specific types
- Mucus membrane = mucosa
-
epithelium of membrane
- *type of epithelium varies (nonketirinized stratified squamous to simple cuboidal)
- *protects organs
-
Connective tissue layer of membrane
- *Loose CT
- *Lamina propria
- Locations:
- *Lines cavities thast open to the outside Organs in the digestive trace, respiratory tract, urinary tract and repooductive tract.
-
Serous Membrane
- = serosa
- Invaginated double-walled sac
-
Epithelium of serous
- *Simple squamous epithelium; �mesothelium�
- Secretes a lubricating fluid
-
Connective tissue layer of serous membrane
- Loose CT
- Not called lamina propria
- Locations:
- Lines cavities that o not open directly to the outside and also covers organs or structures with in that cavity
- Has parietal and visceral layer
- Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
-
Cutaneous membrane Epithelium
- Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Epidermis of skin
-
Connective tissue layer of cutaneous membrane
- = dermis; has 2 parts
- *Loose CT = papillary
- *Dense irregular CT = Reticular layer
- Locations:
- Skin
-
Synovial Membrane
- No epithelium
- CT layer
- Loose CT + elastic fiber + specialized adipocytes
- Locations:
- Joint cavities
- Bursa
- Tendon sheaths
- Secrete synovial fluid
- Lubricates: Permits easier movement
-
Tissue Physiology
Changes in a tissue do to disease
-
�local�
� at the site of the disease
-
�general condition�
� far away from the site of the disease
-
Ways of change in tissue pathology; Atrophy
- Wasting away of a tissue Result of:Change in metabolism
- Decrease of nerce impulses or blood supply
- Aging --> �Senil activity�
- Local inactivity -->�Diverse atrophy�
-
Ways of change in tissue pathology; Necrosis
- Tissue death with in a living body
- Result of trauma, heat or poison
- Decreased blood supply
-
Ways of change in tissue pathology; Somatic Death
- death
-
Methods to restore homeostasis
- *Inflammation response
- *Repair response
-
Tissue repair:
process of replacing dead or damaged cells
-
Sources of new cells:
- Stroma --> supporing part of an organ (CT)
- Parenchyma --> functional part of an organ - epithelium
-
Quality of repair
- Parenchyma � near perfect
- Stroma � scar - fibrosis
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