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Government
the formal organization through which policies are made and the state is managed
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citizen
member of the political community, with certain rights and obligations
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**politics
the making of policy; who gets what, when, and how; Lenin summarized as: �kto - kovo,� or �who does what (rules, oppresses, kills) - to whom�
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**Functions of Government � as listed in the preamble to the Constitution
- � Establish justice � est. the rule of law: a just social and political order
- � Ensure domestic tranquility � keep the peace; prevent rebellion; monopoly on use of force
- � Provide for the common defense � military, anti-terrorism
- � Promote the general welfare � do good; this has expanded greatly since 1789
- � Secure the blessings of liberty � ensure freedoms: ours & our children's
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**Types of Government
- dictatorship � power is held by a small elite; no political challenge to the rulers is allowed; also called authoritarianism; the worst kind is: (Burman)
- totalitarianism � the state claims total, god-like control over all persons and institutions; no free thought or action is tolerated; e.g. N. Korea, Cuba; also USSR, Nazi Germany, Baathist Iraq
- monarchy � power is vested in hierarchical kings and queens; can exist under a constitution (Queen of England)
- democracy � power is held by the people, either directly or through representatives (republic); govt. power is restrained, usually by a constitution (US)
- anarchy � absence of government; chaos, or minimalist �system;� rare: �nature abhors a vacuum� (Samalia, Iraq after invasion)
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the Reformation
with printed Word, some Christians rejected non- scriptural church doctrines; laypeople felt competent to reject elite control, and to govern their own spiritual affairs
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the Enlightenment
challenged assumptions of personal helplessness to fate or God's will, and the divine right of kings; promoted reason, science, and (eventually) religious tolerance
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**social contract theory
people are free and equal by God-given right; requires that all people give their consent to be governed
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**Thomas Hobbes
wrote in Leviathan that in the �state of nature� life was �solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short;� argued for a powerful government to keep order
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**John Locke
in his Second Treatise on Civil Government, Locke argued that natural law gave each individual inalienable rights: �life, liberty, and property;� for Locke, the social contract allowed citizens to dismiss a government that failed to protect their rights
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**direct democracy
citizens meet to discuss all policy decisions; they abide by majority rule
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**indirect democracy
citizens vote for representatives, who act on their behalf
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**republic
government featuring consent of the governed; a representative or indirect government; originally meant �without a king;� literally, res publica (Lat.), �a public thing�
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American Political Culture and the Characteristics of American Democracy
- political culture � commonly held attitudes, beliefs, and core values about government
- personal liberty � freedom from governmental interference or discrimination; freedom �from� (negative freedom) and freedom �to� (positive freedom)
- equality � in political rights and before the law; �one person, one vote�
- popular consent � government exists by the consent of the governed
- majority rule � policies & personnel chosen by 50% + 1 (or by plurality, in many elections); in a free society, also protects minority rights
- popular sovereignty � the right of the people to govern themselves
- civil society � citizens meeting and expressing their views on public policy, including in non-governmental, not-for-profit, independent settings
- individualism � allowing individuals to achieve their highest level of development
- religious faith � US is most God-fearing country; affects politics, society; sizable conservative Christian sub culture
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**Changing Demographics of the U.S. Population
- � racial and ethnic composition � legal/illegal immigration; birth rates
- � **age cohort composition � Baby Boom, Generation X, Generation Y
- � families and family size � fewer children, more single parents
- Implications of These Changes
- � immigration � cheap labor, hispanization v. assimilation, larger ___________
- � aging � �______ of America� leading to demographic time bomb for entitlement programs
- � marriage & children � more absent ________, leading to more poverty, dysfunctions
- political ideology � coherent set of beliefs and ideals about the purpose and scope of government
- � oriented toward the masses
- � simply stated
- � programmatic: calls for (usually specific) changes
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Today�s Ideological Spectrum
- **Conservatism � government should be limited and diffused; should promote free-market economics, achievement, traditional social values, muscular foreign policy (George W. Bush b/c pro-life and tax cuts)
- **Liberalism � government should be active and well-funded; it should regulate the economy and promote equality and social change; mostly anti-war (Barack O
- bama b/c expanding spending budgets, pro-choice, and get rid of don�t ask don�t tell)
- Libertarianism � government should exist only to provide basic defense and public safety; it should not intrude on economic activity or personal liberty in any way
- Leftism � government should effect socialism; it should promote great social change, and join in global action to solve global problems; utopian
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First Steps Toward Independence
- **Stamp Act Congress � met in New York in 1765, first official meeting of the colonies; drafted a detailed list of Crown violations of colonists� fundamental rights
- In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and revised the Sugar Act; but passed the Townshend Acts (1767), which raised taxes on many colonial imports (including tea)
- Committees of Correspondence � in 1772, set up in the colonies to keep colonists aware of developments with England; hardened public opinion against the British
- Boston Tea Party � protest of the Tea Act (1773) which established a monopoly on tea
- Coercive (Intolerable) Acts (1774) � total blockade of Boston Harbor, reinforced the Quartering Act
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**The First Continental Congress
- In Philadelphia, 56 delegates, from every colony except Georgia, met in fall 1774 resolved to oppose the Coercive Acts
- � drafted a Declaration of Rights and Resolves
- � **agreed to meet in May 1775 if King George did not give in to their demands
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**The Second Continental Congress
- Fighting broke out April 19, 1775, at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts; the �shot heard round the world� � 8 Minutemen killed, British besieged Boston
- The Congress met in Philadelphia to organize the colonies for war:
- � created a Continental army, with George Washington as commander-in-chief
- � established a committee for foreign relations
- � authorized the printing of money
- � adopted last-chance "Olive Branch Petition" to England to avert war; it was rejected
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The Declaration of Independence
- was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776; the Declaration proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain
- � **Jefferson argued for separation, drawing on earlier philosophers, such as Locke (draws on his writings), who had written South Carolina's first constitution, its 1663 colonial charter
- � �We hold these truths to be self-evident . . .�
- � England had denied the colonists personal rights and liberties
- � Congress ratifies, Jully 4, 1776
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The First Attempt at Government: the Articles of Confederation
- **Articles � compact among the 13 original states as the basis of national government; written in 1776, ratified by the states in March 1781; created a loose association between 13 regions, independent states (British surrendered in October 1781)
- the national government derived its powers from the states
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**Problems Under the Articles of Confederation
- � the Congress of the Confederation could rarely assemble a quorum of 9 states
- � Congress had no power to tax, so it had no money to spend
- � no effective national currency (led to inflation), and no interstate commercial law
- � no national executive � nobody responsibility to carry out the laws enacted
- � no national judiciary � no way to resolve conflicts between the states
- � no strong central government � states could not be forced to abide by national laws
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**Shay� Rebellion � in 1786, an army of 1,500 armed and angry farmers marched on the Springfield, Mass. state court to fight foreclosures; stopped by a paid militia; effects:
- � showed the weakness of the Confederation
- � showed how the lack of central power limited state sovereignty against threats, in this case, an armed mob
- � Blamed government corruption, cronyism, onerous taxes
- � State militias were unable or unwilling to stop them
- � Eventually rooted by a private Boston militia
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**the Virginia Plan
- used European nation-state model:
- � Strong central government with 3 branches: legislative, executive, & judicial
- � 2-house legislature: one chosen by the people, one chosen by ________________
- � Legislature selects the executive and the judiciary (see British Parliament)
- � favored larger states, like Virginia and New York
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**the New Jersey Plan
- strengthen the Articles, don't replace them:
- � 1-house legislature, one vote for each state; representatives chosen by state legislatures
- � Congress gets power to raise revenues from duties and postal service
- � Supreme Court, appointed for life, chosen by executive officers
- � favored smaller states
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Constitutional Compromise
- **the �Great Compromise� took ideas from both VA & NJ plans:
- � "lower" house � 56 representatives, one for each 40,000 people; elected by the people
- � lower house originates all bills for raising and spending money
- � �upper� house � each state has an equal vote; selected by state legislatures
- � national power is supreme over state government powers
- �Three-Fifths� Compromise � in counting states' populations for representation in the lower house, slaves would be counted as 3/5 of "all other Persons"
- Compromise way northern limit power of southern states
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The U.S. Constitution
- �We the People . . .� � national power comes directly from the people
- �in Order to form a more perfect Union . . .� � acknowledged failure of the Article of Confederation
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**The Basic Principles of the Constitution
- (big ideas) drawn from Locke and Montesquieu
- Separation of Powers � dividing power among three branches of government
- Checks and Balances � each branch of government has some oversight and control over the other two; Locke warned against the legislature delegating any of its powers
- Federal system � power is divided between the state governments and the national government; independent states are bound together in a union
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The Articles of the Constitution
- **Article I: the Legislative Branch
- � 17 enumerated powers
- � �necessary and proper� clause (�elastic� clause) allows for:
- � implied powers
- **Article II: the Executive Branch
- � President
- � diplomacy, appointments, administration, reporting to Congress
- **Article III: the Judicial Branch
- � Supreme Court � settles disputes between states
- � appointed for life, presuming �good behavior�
- Articles IV through VII
- � IV � full faith and credit clause
- � V � how to amend the Constitution
- � VI � supremacy clause: the national law is supreme over states, etc.; no religious test
- � VII � How to Ratify the Constitution
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The Drive for Ratification
the Framers requested that the states call special ratifying conventions to consider it; the Second Continental Congress forwarded it to the states, where it was debated
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Federalists Versus Anti-Federalists
- Federalists � wanted a strong central government; supported ratifying the Constitution
- Anti-Federalists � wanted strong state governments; opposed ratification
- The Federalist Papers � written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay (�Publius�) to promote ratification, for New York newspapers (&VA)
- **Bill of Rights � first 10 amendments; submitted by Congress to complement the Constitution; some feared that enumerating rights would allow rights not named to be weakened or trampled
- Formal Methods of Amending the Constitution
- Article V � two stage process: proposal and ratification
- **two ways to propose amendments:
- � approval by 2/3 of the members in both US House and Senate
- � vote by 2/3 of the state legislatures to have Congress call a constitutional convention
- two ways to ratify amendments:
- � approval by 3/4 of the State Legislatures
- � approval in special ratifying conventions in 3/4 of the states (only one called � for 21st)
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Informal Methods of Amending the Constitution
- judicial interpretation � in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that the federal courts can nullify acts of Congress when in conflict with the Constitution; has the effect of ultimately amending the Constitution
- social, cultural, and legal change � the Great Depression and the New Deal brought great changes in the scope of national or federal government and its relationship with the states
- technology � Constitution must be applied to the Internet, wiretaps, surveillance, etc.
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**The Roots of the Federal System
- federalism � the allocation of power between the national government and the states; see Figs. 3.2 and 3.3
- federal system � both national and state governments get all authority from the people
- Unitary system � local and regional governments get their power from a strong central government
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**National Powers Under the Constitution
- Enumerated powers � 17 specific powers granted to Congress in Article 1, sec. 8; include powers to tax, make money, regulate commerce, and provide for national defense
- Necessary and Proper clause � gives Congress authority to pass all laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers
- supremacy clause � National law is supreme over state laws; in Article VI
- implied powers- needed to carry out the 17 powers
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**State Powers Under the Constitution
- few powers are enumerated to the states; under the Articles of Confederation, states had all the power
- privileges and immunities clause � citizens of every state get the same rights
- Tenth Amendment � powers not delegated to the national government, or prohibited from the states, are reserved to the states, or to the people
- reserve (police) powers � those reserved to the states: the states may make laws to protect the public health, safety, and morals of their citizens
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**Concurrent and Denied Powers Under the Constitution
- Denied powers - Those denied to both state and national government
- Concurrent powers � powers shared by the national and state governments: ability to make and enforce laws, tax, borrow money, establish courts
- Bill of attainder � a law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial; a law passed against an individual; can�t be singled out
- ex post facto laws � laws passed �after the fact,� making a previously legal act illegal, and subject to current penalty
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Relations Among the States
- **Full Faith and Credit clause � contracts and judicial decisions and decrees in one state will be binding and enforceable in all states
- Extradition of criminals � required in Article IV
- Supreme Court decides arguments between the states
- Interstate compacts � originally, were bistate compacts about boundaries; some are about policy or sharing resources, e.g. Drivers License Compact, Emergency Management Assistance Compact
- Privileges and Immunities Clause- citizens of all states have the same fundamental rights.
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**McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
- � Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government
- � ruled that Congress had the implied power to create a national bank to carry out its �necessary and proper� authority to collect taxes, issue currency, and borrow money
- � denied the right of a state to tax a U.S.-chartered bank; Marshall: �The power to tax involves the power to destroy.�
- � States may not tax a federal government entity
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**Dual Federalism: the Taney Court, Slavery, and the Civil War
- dual federalism � the national government should not exceed its enumerated powers; national and state governments should be separate and equally powerful
- Dred Scott (1857) � Taney Court ruled the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional (first since 1819), made it impossible for Congressional action to prevent the Civil War
- 16th Amendment (1913) � allowed Congress to enact a national income tax; greatly enhanced national power to tax and spend, and to make many new policies
- 17th Amendment (1913) � U.S. senators directly elected by the people, no longer by state legislatures; limited party/machine politics, Senate no longer protector of the states
- Both 16 and 17 allowed for major expansion of national power v. the states.
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**Cooperative Federalism: the New Deal and the Growth of National Government
- The Great Depression � economic failure of 1930s: trade stifled, markets crashed, widespread bank failures, severe high unemployment, trade smothered
- The New Deal � Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) used unprecedented government intervene-tion to relieve economic woes; �alphabetocracy� included CCC, AAA, NRA, FHA
- �Court Packing� plan � FDR tried to add 4 justices to the anti-New Deal Supreme Court; the plan failed, but the court then reversed many of its decisions � tried massive government intervention to relieve economic woes
- **Cooperative federalism � intertwined relationship among state, and local governments; change from �layer cake� to �marble cake� illustration of their responsibilities
- Federal grants � federal funds given to states for a specific purpose
- Categorical grants � federal funds given by a formula, with detailed conditions; often, states must �match� federal funds with their own funding
- The Great Society � Lyndon Johnson (LBJ) funds programs to fight poverty and inequality; included the War on Poverty (�poverty won�); city & state governments often bypassed to directly fund urban community groups
- Preemption � allows the national government to overrides, or preempts, state or local power
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**New Federalism: Returning Power to the States
- the Reagan Revolution � brakes on federal domestic spending & regulations in the �80s; reversed under Bush I & Clinton with Democratic Congress, 1990-94
- Block grants � broad grants, for specific activities, but with few strings attached � to fight crime
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Federalism and the Supreme Court
- **Brown v. Board of Education (1954) � struck down official school segregation � didn�t react at first so did again
- Roe v. Wade (1973) � struck down all states� laws banning, w/Doe v. Bolton, any restrictions on abortion; social/political effects: created pro-life movements, killed the ERA; what if it's overturned?
- recent devolution � many 5-4 decisions devolving power to the states; see Figure 3.4
- Printz v. US (1997)- limited federal mandates on local law enforcement
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**The Evolution of State and Local Governments
- states are the basic units which
- � establish local governments, and
- � are the building blocks of the federal government
- states and localities grew from part-time to full-time enterprises; grew to do more; also, federal initiatives required S&LGs to do more
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State Governments
- �It varies from state to state� � different practices, policies; �laboratories of democracy�
- state constitutions � predated, influenced federal constitution; more easily revised
- **Progressive movement � fought machine politics, advocated democratic reforms; included Gov./Sen. Robert M. LaFollette, Pres. Teddy Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson
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State Legislatures � originally envisioned as part-time �citizen legislaters,� the most powerful state institution; now more professional, more full time; major activities:
- � write laws: criminal, regulatory, commercial laws; committee, caucus work
- � pass budgets
- � local concerns, constituent services
- **Sunset law � sets a date for a program to expire, unless reauthorized by the legislature
- **Term limits � restrictions on how long an individual may serve in elected offices; in MI, 6 yrs. (3 x 2) for representatives, 8 yrs. (2 x 4) for senators � congress has none
- one-person, one-vote � equitable representation by population in state legislatures
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**Governors
- elected (usu. 4 yrs.) chief executives in state governments; major activities:
- � establish agenda � submit bills, bully pulpit
- � submit & execute budgets; also issue bonds
- � agency & board appointments; atop the administration, patronage
- Veto � governor's authority to void a bill that has been passed by the legislature; usually can be overridden by a 2/3 vote in both legislative chambers
- **Line item veto � governor's authority to delete part of a bill, especially one that involves taxing or spending � president does not have power
- criminal justice powers: pardon, commutation, parole (usu. w/board), extradition
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Elections and Political Parties
- statewide elections are partisan, but usually not as ideological as national elections
- the Solid South � the Democratic Party dominated southern politics from the Civil War through most of the 20th century; now as bipartisan as most of the country
- watersheds � 1930s, 1964, 1974, 1994; end of liberal-era Democratic dominance
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**Direct Democracy
- Only at State Level
- Direct initiative � voters enact a law, by ballot measure; bypass legislature and governor (see Table 4.3, also for others) � petition to get on ballot
- Indirect initiative � legislature offers a ballot measure for voters to enact
- direct referendum � voters veto a bill passed by the legislature
- Recall � voters remove an officeholder (politician) before the next scheduled election; rare; in18 states
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Local Governments
- **Charter � specifies a municipality�s basic structures, procedures, and scope of services
- Dillon�s Rule � local governments get their authority from state governments
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State Executives and Legislatures
- Mayor � chief elected executive city official
- city council � city�s legislature
- Manager � professional executive hired to administer city or county operations
- elections � can be district-based or at-large
- town meeting � all eligible voters meet to approve budgets and ordinances
- **political machine � an organization trading votes and political support for services or jobs
- Sunshine Laws require government meetings and records to be open to the public (not behind closed doors)
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State Finances
- states have been getting about 1/4 of their funding from the federal government; other significant state revenue sources are income taxes, sales taxes, and assorted fees
- **Progressive tax � level of taxes increases with income, wealth, or the ability to pay
- **Regressive tax � takes a greater percentage of means from those with less income, wealth, or ability to pay
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Relations with Indian Nations
- tribes signed treaties between US and what were then independent nations, usually based on military defeat or threat
- **Domestic Dependent nations � type of sovereignty; tribes are outside the authority of state governments, but rely on the federal government for the definition of their authority � political desgination
- Trust relationship � legal obligation of the U.S. federal government to protect the interests of Indian tribes
- Compact � a formal, legal agreement between a state and a tribe; Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 allows states to negotiate casino gambling with tribes
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