MIDTERM 1-10

• Phospholipids - permit diffusion
• Cholestrol - provides stability
• Protiens - signaling molecules

Control center with 46 chromosomes

• Genetic code for cell functions (A-T) (G-C)
• Triplet (codon) code for a single amino acid 3 bases

Watery solution of minerals gases and organic molecules site for chemical reactions

Intercellar structures with specific functions

• Has single strand
• Transcription - mRNA is formed as a complementary copy of the sequence of bases in a gene
• tRNA molecules (in cytoplasm) hav anti-codons for the triplets on the mRNA
• Ribosomes siye of protien synthesis & enzymes catalyze peptide bonds

DNA replication forms two sets of chromosomes during interphase (46 chromosomes for humans)

• 1) The chromosomes coil up & become visible as short rods. Each chromosome is really two chromatids (original DNA plus its copy) still attached at a region called centromere
• 2) the nuclear membrane disappears
• 3) the centrioles move toward opposite poles of the cell & organize the spindle fibers which extend across the equator of the cell

• The pairs of chromatids line up along the equator of the cell. The centromere of each pair is attached to a spindal fiber.
• 2) the centromeres now divide

• 1) Each chromatid is now a separate chromosome; there are two complete & separate sets
• 2) the spindal fibers contract & pull the chromosomes; one set toward each pole of the cell

• 1) The sets of chromosomes reach the poles of the cells & become indistinct as their DNA uncoils to form chromatin
• 2) the nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of chromosomes

The cytoplasm divides; new membrane is formed

Gamete cell with the diploid number of chromosomes diviides twice to form 4 cells each with the haploid number of chromosomes (23 for humans)

forearm

front of elbow

armpit

forehead

stomach

buttocks

upper arm

liver

mouth

heart

neck

head

hip

groin

small of back

breast

nose

shoulder

skin

back of head

thigh

eye

crown of head

breastbone

kneecap

side of head

chest

navel

foot

palm

pelvic floor

above or higher

sole of foot

below or lower

back of knee

toward the front

lungs

toward the back

kidney

toward the front

base of spine

toward the back

shoulder blade

toward the midline

away from the midline

outside

within

toward the surface

within

the main part

extending from the main part

closer to the origin

farther from the origin

pertaining to the wall of a cavity

pertaining to the organs within a cavity

the study of body structure

study of how the body functions

the study of disorders of functioning and a knowledge of normal physiology makes such disorders easier to understand

simple molecules made of one or two molecules made of one or two elements other than carbon

very complex and always contain the elements carbon and hydrogen

is a state of good health maintained by the normal metabolism of the organ systems

consists of the cranial cavity and the vertebral (spinal) cavity

the diaphram separates the thoractic cavity and the abdominal cavity; pelvic cavity inferior to abdominal cavity

include the heart and lungs

include the liver, intestines and the stomach

inferior to the abdominal cavity and contains bladder and reproductive organs

an imaginary flat surface that separates two portions of the body or an organ

separates the body front to back

separates the body into upper and lower

separates the body into equal right and left halves

a plane along the long axis of an organ

plane perpendicular to the long axis of the organ

• simplest chemical make up all matter
• carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen phosphorus sulfur 99% of human body
• elements combine to form molecules

• smallest part of element
• consist of positively & negatively charges

• cations (+)
• anions (-)
• salts acids and bases are formed by ionic bonding

• sharing electrons between atoms
• carbon always forms covalent bonds
• strong bond not weakened by water

• covalent bond between two sulfur atoms in a protien
• helps maintain the 3dimensional shape of some protiens

• covalently bonded y oxygen or nitrogen
• 3-dimensional shapen & nucleic acids maintained by hydrogen bonds

• change by the formation or breaking of chemical bonds
• synthesis - joining molecules
• decomposition - bonds are broken in molecules

• waste product of cell respiration
• must be exhaled; causes acidosis

• energy producing processes of cells
• this is why we breathe: to take in oxygen to breakdown food to produce energy and to exhale the CO2 produced

• the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 ;
• 7 neutral, below 7 is acidic, above 7 alkaline
• acid: increases the H+ ion concentration
• base: decreases the H+ ion concentration
• cells pH 6.8
• pH range of blood 7.35 - 7.45

• monosaccharides
• - simple sugars
• - glucose hexose sugar
• - primary energy for cell resp
• diaccharidess
• -two hexose
• oligosaccharides
• -3 or 20 hexose
• -antigens to cell membranes
• polysaccharides
• -starches in plants
• -glycogen stored sugar in liver and muscles
• -cellulose fiber portion of plant cells

• true fats
• -made of fatty acids & glycerol
• -triglycerides are storage form
• phospholipids
• - diglycerides in cell membranes
• -myelin in phospholipid
• steriods
• - 4 rings of carbon and hydrogen

• made of amino acids
• specific sequence and shape
• protien systhesis needed for energy production

• made of nucleotides (pentose sugar phosphate nitrogenous base)
• DNA double strand of nucleotides
• RNA single strand of nucleotides
• ATP nucleotide specialized to trap and release energy

• found on inner & outer surfaces
• recieve nutrients from connective tissues beneath them
• capable of secretion

• structure: one layer of flat cells, smooth
• function: alveoli of lungs - thin to permit diffusion of gases
• Capillaries - thin to permit exchanges of blood & materials; smooth to prevent clotting

• Structure: Many layers of cells; surface cells change from round to flat
• Function: lining urinary bladder - permits expansion without tearing lining

• Structure: Many layers of cells, surface cells flat; lower layer of cells rounded & undergoes mitosis
• Function: epidermis - surface cells are dead; barrier to pathogens
• lining of esophoagus, vagina - suface cells are living; a barrier to pathogens

• Structure: one layer of cube-shaped cells
• Function:
• thyroid - secretion of hormone
• salivary glands - secret saliva
• kidney - reabsorbtion of materials back into blood

• Structure: One layer of column shaped cells
• Function:
• stomach - secretes gastric juices
• s. intestine - secrete enzymes and absorbs end products of digestion (microvilli present)

• Structure: one layer of columnar cells with cilia on their free surfaces
• Function:
• Lining trachea - sweeps mucus & dust to the pharynx
• Lining fallopian tube - sweeps ovum toward uterus

• Cells are formed by hemopoietic tissue inside the red bone marrow & lypathatic tissue
• Function:
• RBC - transport oxygen
• WBC - support immunity
• Platelets - cause clotting
• Plasma - transport materials

• Structure: fibroblasts, matrix of tissue fluid, collagen, & elastin fibers (mucus membranes)
• Found: below dermis & epithelium of tracts that open to the enviorment Ex: mouth, nose
• Function:
• Connects skin to muscle
• WBCs destroys pathogens

• Structure: Very little matrix, adiocytes that store fat
• Function:
• stores excess energy
• produces chemicals that influence appetite, use of nutrients and inflammation
• Found: Between skin & muscles
• around eyes and kidneys

• Structure: Primarlily matrix is elastic fibers w/ few fibroblasts
• Function: Walls of large artries
• helps maintain blood pressure around alveoli in lungs
• promotes normal exhalation

• Structure: mostly collagen fibers w/ few fibroblasts
• Function:
• regular: tendons, ligaments
• strong to withstand forces of movement of joints
• irregular: dermis, fascia
• the strong inner layer of the skin

• Structure:
• Osteocytes in a matrix calcium salts & strong collagen
• Function:
• support body
• protect internal organs
• store excess calcium
• contain & protect red bone marrow

• Structure: Chondrocytes in a flexible protien matrix
• Function:
• Wall of trachea - keeps airway open
• joint surfaces of bones - smooth to prevent friction
• Tip of nose & outer ear - support
• Between vertebrae - absorb shock

• Structure: large cylindrical cells w/ striations, several nuclei
• Function: Moves the body, produces heat
• Effect of nerve impulses: voluntary contraction

• Structure: small tapered cells w/ NO striations & one nucleus
• Function:
• wall of arteries - maintain BP,
• stomach, intestines - propel food through digestive tract
• iris of eye - regulates size of pupil

• Structure: branched cells, have one nucleous & contain faint striations
• Function:
• walls of the chambers - allows heart to pump blood throughout the body

• Structure: neurons - cell body, neurotransmitters, synapse
• Function: axon carry impulses away, dendrites carry impulses toward, neurotransmitter carries impulses across synapse
• Found: in brain spinal cord & peripheral nerves

• Serous - line closed bosy cavities and their organs
• Pleural - thoracic cavity
• Pericardium - surfaces of the heart
• Peritoneum - abdominal cavity
• Mucous - line body tracts that have openings to the enviorment

• Superficial Fascia - between the skin & muscles
• Periosteum - covers each bone
• Perichondrium - covers cartlidge
• Synovial - lines joint cavities
• Deep Fascia - covers skeletal muscles
• Meninges - cover brain & spinal cord
• Fibrous pericardium - forms a sac around the heart

Between the skin & muscles adipose tissue stores fat

Covers each bone; contains blood vessels that enter the bone

Covers cartilage; contains capillaries, the only blood supply for cartilidge

Lines joints cavities; secretes synovial fluid to prevent friction when joints move

Covers each skeletal muscle anchors tendon

Cover the brain & spinal cord; contain cerebrospinal fluid

Forms a sac around the heart, lined by the serous parietal pericardium

• Prevents loss or entry of water
• Prevents entry of pathogens & most chemicals

• Continuous mitosis produces new cells to replace worn off surface cells
• Produces antimicrobial defensins
• Cholesterol is changed to vitamin D on exposure to UV rays

Phagocytize foreign material & stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes

Produce melanin on exposure to UV rays

Protects living skin layers frm further exposure to UV rays

Contains capillaries that nourish the stratum germinativum uneven junction of the dermis & epidermis

• Eyelashes & nasal hair keep dust out of eyes & nasal cavities
• Scalp hair provides insulation frm cold for the head

• Protects ends of fingers & toes frm mechanical injury
• Mitosis occurs in root of nail

Detect changes tht are felt as cutanous sense heat cold & pain

Produce sebum which prevents drying of skin & hair & inhibits growth of bacteria

Produces cerumen which prevents drying of the eardrum

Apocrine Produce watery sweat tht is evaporated by excess body heat to cool the body

• Diate in response to warmth to incease heat loss
• Constrict in response to cold to conserve body heat
• Constrict in stressful situations to shunt blood to more vital organs

Fibers make it strong

Fibers Make it elastic

Outer stratified squamous

Inner iregular type of fibrous connective tissue

Aka superficial fascia

Areolar & adipose connects dermis to muscle

glycogen

actin , myosin , troponin / tropomyosin

frontal lobe

hemoglobin

depolarization

insertion

extension

sarcolemma

gastrocnemius

shortening

brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

detecting changes, feel sensations, initate responses to changes, organize and store info

chroid plexuses

sympathetic & parasympathetic

axon cell body & dendrite

myelin sheath

motor neurons

Central Nervous System

schwann cells (PNS) & oligodendrocytes (CNS)

31 pairs

receptors, sensory neurons, CNS, motor neurons, effectors

medulla

proprioceptors

exchanges nutrients and waste product between the CNS & blood & absorbs shock

hormones

darkness

pancreas

GH TSH ACTH Prolactin FSH LH

prostaglandins

FSH

stimulate the contraction of the uterus during labor & release of breast milk

protien hormones

hyperglycemia

occupital lobe

projection, intensity, adaption, contrast, after-image

pain heat & cold

GI changes

chemoreceptors

aquaous humor

retina

hair cells

hearing & equilibrium

cerebrum cerebellum midbrain and cerebrum

acoustic

excess of a hormone

cell membrane