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Cell membrane structure
- Phospholipids - permit diffusion
- Cholestrol - provides stability
- Protiens - signaling molecules
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Nucleus
Control center with 46 chromosomes
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DNA
- Genetic code for cell functions (A-T) (G-C)
- Triplet (codon) code for a single amino acid 3 bases
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Cytoplasma
Watery solution of minerals gases and organic molecules site for chemical reactions
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Cell organelles
Intercellar structures with specific functions
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RNA & protien synthesis
- Has single strand
- Transcription - mRNA is formed as a complementary copy of the sequence of bases in a gene
- tRNA molecules (in cytoplasm) hav anti-codons for the triplets on the mRNA
- Ribosomes siye of protien synthesis & enzymes catalyze peptide bonds
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Mitosis
DNA replication forms two sets of chromosomes during interphase (46 chromosomes for humans)
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Prophase
- 1) The chromosomes coil up & become visible as short rods. Each chromosome is really two chromatids (original DNA plus its copy) still attached at a region called centromere
- 2) the nuclear membrane disappears
- 3) the centrioles move toward opposite poles of the cell & organize the spindle fibers which extend across the equator of the cell
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Metaphase
- The pairs of chromatids line up along the equator of the cell. The centromere of each pair is attached to a spindal fiber.
- 2) the centromeres now divide
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Anaphase
- 1) Each chromatid is now a separate chromosome; there are two complete & separate sets
- 2) the spindal fibers contract & pull the chromosomes; one set toward each pole of the cell
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Telophase
- 1) The sets of chromosomes reach the poles of the cells & become indistinct as their DNA uncoils to form chromatin
- 2) the nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of chromosomes
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Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm divides; new membrane is formed
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Meiosis
Gamete cell with the diploid number of chromosomes diviides twice to form 4 cells each with the haploid number of chromosomes (23 for humans)
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Antecubital
front of elbow
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anterior
toward the front
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posterior
toward the back
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medial
toward the midline
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lateral
away from the midline
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superficial
toward the surface
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peripheral
extending from the main part
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proximal
closer to the origin
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distal
farther from the origin
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parietal
pertaining to the wall of a cavity
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visceral
pertaining to the organs within a cavity
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anatomy
the study of body structure
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physiology
study of how the body functions
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Pathophysiology
the study of disorders of functioning and a knowledge of normal physiology makes such disorders easier to understand
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inorganic chemicals
simple molecules made of one or two molecules made of one or two elements other than carbon
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organic chemical
very complex and always contain the elements carbon and hydrogen
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homeostasis
is a state of good health maintained by the normal metabolism of the organ systems
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dorsal cavity
consists of the cranial cavity and the vertebral (spinal) cavity
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ventral cavity
the diaphram separates the thoractic cavity and the abdominal cavity; pelvic cavity inferior to abdominal cavity
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thoracic cavity
include the heart and lungs
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abdominal cavity
include the liver, intestines and the stomach
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pelvic cavity
inferior to the abdominal cavity and contains bladder and reproductive organs
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plane
an imaginary flat surface that separates two portions of the body or an organ
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frontal section
separates the body front to back
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transverse section
separates the body into upper and lower
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midsagittal
separates the body into equal right and left halves
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longitudinal section
a plane along the long axis of an organ
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cross section
plane perpendicular to the long axis of the organ
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elements
- simplest chemical make up all matter
- carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen phosphorus sulfur 99% of human body
- elements combine to form molecules
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Atoms
- smallest part of element
- consist of positively & negatively charges
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ionic Bonds
- cations (+)
- anions (-)
- salts acids and bases are formed by ionic bonding
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covalent bonds
- sharing electrons between atoms
- carbon always forms covalent bonds
- strong bond not weakened by water
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disulfide bond
- covalent bond between two sulfur atoms in a protien
- helps maintain the 3dimensional shape of some protiens
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Hydrogen bond
- covalently bonded y oxygen or nitrogen
- 3-dimensional shapen & nucleic acids maintained by hydrogen bonds
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Chemical reactions
- change by the formation or breaking of chemical bonds
- synthesis - joining molecules
- decomposition - bonds are broken in molecules
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Carbon dioxide
- waste product of cell respiration
- must be exhaled; causes acidosis
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cell respiration
- energy producing processes of cells
- this is why we breathe: to take in oxygen to breakdown food to produce energy and to exhale the CO2 produced
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Acids bases pH
- the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 ;
- 7 neutral, below 7 is acidic, above 7 alkaline
- acid: increases the H+ ion concentration
- base: decreases the H+ ion concentration
- cells pH 6.8
- pH range of blood 7.35 - 7.45
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Carbohydrates
- monosaccharides
- - simple sugars
- - glucose hexose sugar
- - primary energy for cell resp
- diaccharidess
- -two hexose
- oligosaccharides
- -3 or 20 hexose
- -antigens to cell membranes
- polysaccharides
- -starches in plants
- -glycogen stored sugar in liver and muscles
- -cellulose fiber portion of plant cells
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lipids
- true fats
- -made of fatty acids & glycerol
- -triglycerides are storage form
- phospholipids
- - diglycerides in cell membranes
- -myelin in phospholipid
- steriods
- - 4 rings of carbon and hydrogen
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protiens
- made of amino acids
- specific sequence and shape
- protien systhesis needed for energy production
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Nucleic acids
- made of nucleotides (pentose sugar phosphate nitrogenous base)
- DNA double strand of nucleotides
- RNA single strand of nucleotides
- ATP nucleotide specialized to trap and release energy
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epithelial tissue
- found on inner & outer surfaces
- recieve nutrients from connective tissues beneath them
- capable of secretion
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Simple Squamous ET
- structure: one layer of flat cells, smooth
- function: alveoli of lungs - thin to permit diffusion of gases
- Capillaries - thin to permit exchanges of blood & materials; smooth to prevent clotting
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Transitional ET
- Structure: Many layers of cells; surface cells change from round to flat
- Function: lining urinary bladder - permits expansion without tearing lining
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Stratified Squamous ET
- Structure: Many layers of cells, surface cells flat; lower layer of cells rounded & undergoes mitosis
- Function: epidermis - surface cells are dead; barrier to pathogens
- lining of esophoagus, vagina - suface cells are living; a barrier to pathogens
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Simple Cubodial ET
- Structure: one layer of cube-shaped cells
- Function:
- thyroid - secretion of hormone
- salivary glands - secret saliva
- kidney - reabsorbtion of materials back into blood
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Simple Columnar ET
- Structure: One layer of column shaped cells
- Function:
- stomach - secretes gastric juices
- s. intestine - secrete enzymes and absorbs end products of digestion (microvilli present)
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Ciliated ET
- Structure: one layer of columnar cells with cilia on their free surfaces
- Function:
- Lining trachea - sweeps mucus & dust to the pharynx
- Lining fallopian tube - sweeps ovum toward uterus
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Blood CT
- Cells are formed by hemopoietic tissue inside the red bone marrow & lypathatic tissue
- Function:
- RBC - transport oxygen
- WBC - support immunity
- Platelets - cause clotting
- Plasma - transport materials
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Areolar (loose) CT
- Structure: fibroblasts, matrix of tissue fluid, collagen, & elastin fibers (mucus membranes)
- Found: below dermis & epithelium of tracts that open to the enviorment Ex: mouth, nose
- Function:
- Connects skin to muscle
- WBCs destroys pathogens
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Adipose CT
- Structure: Very little matrix, adiocytes that store fat
- Function:
- stores excess energy
- produces chemicals that influence appetite, use of nutrients and inflammation
- Found: Between skin & muscles
- around eyes and kidneys
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Elastic CT
- Structure: Primarlily matrix is elastic fibers w/ few fibroblasts
- Function: Walls of large artries
- helps maintain blood pressure around alveoli in lungs
- promotes normal exhalation
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Fibrous CT
- Structure: mostly collagen fibers w/ few fibroblasts
- Function:
- regular: tendons, ligaments
- strong to withstand forces of movement of joints
- irregular: dermis, fascia
- the strong inner layer of the skin
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Bone CT
- Structure:
- Osteocytes in a matrix calcium salts & strong collagen
- Function:
- support body
- protect internal organs
- store excess calcium
- contain & protect red bone marrow
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Cartilage CT
- Structure: Chondrocytes in a flexible protien matrix
- Function:
- Wall of trachea - keeps airway open
- joint surfaces of bones - smooth to prevent friction
- Tip of nose & outer ear - support
- Between vertebrae - absorb shock
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Skeletal MT
- Structure: large cylindrical cells w/ striations, several nuclei
- Function: Moves the body, produces heat
- Effect of nerve impulses: voluntary contraction
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Smooth MT
- Structure: small tapered cells w/ NO striations & one nucleus
- Function:
- wall of arteries - maintain BP,
- stomach, intestines - propel food through digestive tract
- iris of eye - regulates size of pupil
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Cardiac MT
- Structure: branched cells, have one nucleous & contain faint striations
- Function:
- walls of the chambers - allows heart to pump blood throughout the body
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Nerve Tissue
- Structure: neurons - cell body, neurotransmitters, synapse
- Function: axon carry impulses away, dendrites carry impulses toward, neurotransmitter carries impulses across synapse
- Found: in brain spinal cord & peripheral nerves
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Epithelial Membranes
- Serous - line closed bosy cavities and their organs
- Pleural - thoracic cavity
- Pericardium - surfaces of the heart
- Peritoneum - abdominal cavity
- Mucous - line body tracts that have openings to the enviorment
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Connective Tissue Membranes
- Superficial Fascia - between the skin & muscles
- Periosteum - covers each bone
- Perichondrium - covers cartlidge
- Synovial - lines joint cavities
- Deep Fascia - covers skeletal muscles
- Meninges - cover brain & spinal cord
- Fibrous pericardium - forms a sac around the heart
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Superficial fascia
Between the skin & muscles adipose tissue stores fat
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Periosteum
Covers each bone; contains blood vessels that enter the bone
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Perichondrium
Covers cartilage; contains capillaries, the only blood supply for cartilidge
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Synovial
Lines joints cavities; secretes synovial fluid to prevent friction when joints move
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Deep fascia
Covers each skeletal muscle anchors tendon
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Meninges
Cover the brain & spinal cord; contain cerebrospinal fluid
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Fibrous pericardium
Forms a sac around the heart, lined by the serous parietal pericardium
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Stratum corneum (keratin)
- Prevents loss or entry of water
- Prevents entry of pathogens & most chemicals
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Stratum germinativum (basale)
- Continuous mitosis produces new cells to replace worn off surface cells
- Produces antimicrobial defensins
- Cholesterol is changed to vitamin D on exposure to UV rays
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Langerhans cells
Phagocytize foreign material & stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes
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Melanocytes
Produce melanin on exposure to UV rays
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Melanin
Protects living skin layers frm further exposure to UV rays
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Papillary layer
Contains capillaries that nourish the stratum germinativum uneven junction of the dermis & epidermis
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Hair (follicles)
- Eyelashes & nasal hair keep dust out of eyes & nasal cavities
- Scalp hair provides insulation frm cold for the head
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Nails
- Protects ends of fingers & toes frm mechanical injury
- Mitosis occurs in root of nail
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Receptors free nerve
Detect changes tht are felt as cutanous sense heat cold & pain
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Sebaceous glands
Produce sebum which prevents drying of skin & hair & inhibits growth of bacteria
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Ceruminous glands
Produces cerumen which prevents drying of the eardrum
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Eccrine sweat glands
Apocrine Produce watery sweat tht is evaporated by excess body heat to cool the body
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Arterioles
- Diate in response to warmth to incease heat loss
- Constrict in response to cold to conserve body heat
- Constrict in stressful situations to shunt blood to more vital organs
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Collagen
Fibers make it strong
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Elastin
Fibers Make it elastic
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Epidermis
Outer stratified squamous
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Dermis
Inner iregular type of fibrous connective tissue
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Subcutaneous tissue
Aka superficial fascia
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Connective
Areolar & adipose connects dermis to muscle
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The most abdundant source of energy
glycogen
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three protiens essential for muscle contraction
actin , myosin , troponin / tropomyosin
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specfic part of the brain that intiates muscle contraction
frontal lobe
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the protien in red blood cells that transport O2 to muscles
hemoglobin
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the reversal of electrical charges on the sarcolemma responding to nerve impulse
depolarization
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the more attachment of a muscle to a bone
insertion
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the opposite of flexion
extension
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cell membrane of the muscle fiber
sarcolemma
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muscle often called calve
gastrocnemius
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when a muscle contracts it pulls a bone by doing this in length
shortening
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the central nervous system consist of these 2 major organs in our body
brain & spinal cord
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the division of the nervous system that includes the cranial & spinal nerves
peripheral nervous system
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function of the nervous system include
detecting changes, feel sensations, initate responses to changes, organize and store info
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cerebral spinal fluid is formed by this
chroid plexuses
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2 division of the qutomatic nervous system
sympathetic & parasympathetic
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3 major parts of a neuron
axon cell body & dendrite
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neurond are electrically insulated by the presence of
myelin sheath
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AKA effernt neurons
motor neurons
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interneuron is found entirely within this division of the nervous system
Central Nervous System
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Myelin sheath are made of these types of cells found BOTH in the PNS & CNS
schwann cells (PNS) & oligodendrocytes (CNS)
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The spinal cord has this many pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from
31 pairs
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correct pathway of a reflex arc
receptors, sensory neurons, CNS, motor neurons, effectors
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this part of the brain regulates are vitals & reflexes
medulla
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the receptors for muscle sense that detect stretching are called
proprioceptors
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two important functions of CSF
exchanges nutrients and waste product between the CNS & blood & absorbs shock
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endocrine glands are ductless and secrete these specialized substances
hormones
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pineal gland releases this hormone in response to
darkness
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organ that contains hormone producing cells called islets of Langerhans
pancreas
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hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
GH TSH ACTH Prolactin FSH LH
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Phospholipids of cell membranes synthesize these localized hormones
prostaglandins
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the testes or ovaries inhibinfor the purpose to inhibit this OTHER hormone secrection
FSH
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function of oxytocin
stimulate the contraction of the uterus during labor & release of breast milk
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@ messenger Theory describes the action of these types of hormones
protien hormones
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stimulus for the secretion of insulin
hyperglycemia
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specific are of the brain that is responsible for the visceral areas
occupital lobe
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Charactristics of sensations
projection, intensity, adaption, contrast, after-image
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Free nerve endings within the cutaneous tissue are receptors for these sensations
pain heat & cold
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receptors of hunger detect these types of changes
GI changes
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both taste buds & nasal cavities contain these types of receptors
chemoreceptors
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this liquid in the eye nourishes the lens & cornea
aquaous humor
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the innermost layer of the eye that contains rods & cones
retina
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receptors found in the ear responsible for hearing
hair cells
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the ear is responsible for these two senses
hearing & equilibrium
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the areas of the brain that interprets equilibrium
cerebrum cerebellum midbrain and cerebrum
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cranial nerve for hearing & equilibruim
acoustic
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cause of hyersecretion disorders
excess of a hormone
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steroid hormone enter the nucleus of cells diffusing easliy through this structure
cell membrane
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