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Parsimony
Simplest answer (least amount of changes)
-
Phylogenetic trees
Represent evolutionary history and relatedness
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Clade
Includes common and cestor and all offspring
-
Monophyletic
Common ancestor and all offspring
-
Polyphyletic
offspring but no common ancestor
-
paraphyletic
common ancestor but not all offspring
-
Groups are more closely related if...
They share a more recent common ancesstor
-
You have the same tree if...
you rotate branches
-
star phylogeny
Unknown relationships
-
synapomorphies
Shared, derived characteristics
-
out group
closely related, but not part of the clade
-
synapomorphies can be...
molecular
-
Homoplasy (convergent evolution)
Similarities due to environmental pressure ( not ancestory)
-
Classification order
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genious
- Species
-
Genious
First, Capitalized, Italisized
-
Species
second, Not Capitalized, Italisized
-
How many kingdoms are there?
8
-
Domains
Encompase many kingdoms
-
Archea
- Not bacterium
- ancient organisms
-
-
Domain Eukaryote
- Cell structure
- Nucleus- membrane bound
- (multicellular)
-
Protista-Protozoan group
Green plants, fungi, animals, protists
-
Endosymbosis Theory
- Earliy cells cannot produce efficient ATP withou mitochondira
- Eukaryotes engulfed the prokaryote (Mitochondrian)
- The Mitochondian cell living withing the larger cell began to produce ATP for the larger call
-
Evidence for Endosymbosis theory
Mitochondirans have their own genetic makeup
-
Animal Characteristics
- Cell structue
- Tissue types
- Nutrition
-
Eukaryotes (characteristics)
- Multicellular
- Plasma Membrane
- No Cell Wall
-
4 types of tissue
- Epithelial
- Connective (cologen)
- Muscular
- Nervous
-
Heterotrophic
Canot create their own energy
-
Excess energy
Stored as fat (glychogen)
-
Body plans
- # of layers of tissue
- Symetry
- Body Cavities- space between organ and skin
- Embryotic developement
- How energy is aquired
-
Tissue
group of interconnected cells of similar structure that perfom a similar function
-
Embryotic tissue layers
- 0-1 Sponges
- 2 animals
- 3 animals
-
Diploblastic
- 2 tissue layers
- all are animals
-
-
Embryotic layers (in order)
- Ectoderm
- Mesoderm
- Endoderm
- gut
-
Asymetry
- not symetry (sponge)
- primative
-
Bilateral symetry
- Single plane of symetry ( right and laft side)
- more evolved
-
Radial Symetry
Multiple planes of symetry
-
-
-
Psuedocoelomate
One cavity
-
ceolomate
many body cavities
-
Advantages of body cavity
- Prevents compression of digestive system
- allows for larger body
- protects internal organs
- allos tube-within-a-tube system
- Can provide body support
-
Hydrostatic Skeleton
Fluid filled Psuedocoelom
-
Protosome
- Spiral cleavage (twisting cells)
- Blastospore becomes mouth
- Solid mesoderm
-
Deuterostome
- Radial Clevage (no twisitng of cells)
- Blastpore becomes anus
- hollow mesoderm
-
Blastospore
first oppening in cell
-
Gastrovascular Cavities
Single mouth- food and waste go in and out same place
-
Tube-within-a-tube
- seperate waste and intake
- asembly line process
- Specialization of organs
-
Multicellular
calls specialize to help the whole
-
Colononial
groups of the same cellular organism
-
Molecular phylogony
- Alternative to morphology
- Compare RNA (RNA has fewr mutations than DNA)
-
Lophotrochozoa
Grow by enlarging their bodies
-
Ecdysozoa
Growth by molting
-
suspension
Filter food from the air and water
-
deposit feeders
Eat their surroundings
-
fluid feeders
Nectar, blood, fecies
-
Bulk feeders
everything else
-
Carnivores
- eat other animals
- teeth predict diet - have Cainine teeth
-
Herbivores
- eat plants
- Molars for grinding
-
Omnivores
- Eat plants and other animals
- have cainines and molars
-
Parasites
- Don't usualy kill hosts
- attatch to hosts
-
-
-
Homologus
traits devlope from common ancestors
-
DII (Distal-Less) Gene
Map the location of the bodies extremities from the main axis
-
Reproduction
- Fragmentation
- Budding
- Paratogenisis
-
Fragmentation
discarded body parts can form new organisms
-
Budding
Can reform som body parts
-
Parantogenesis
eggs don't need to be fertalized
-
Those thta can produce asexualy...
can produce sexualy
-
Organism that can asexually produce will more often sexually produce because...
creates genetic diversity
-
Monecious
both sex organs in one individual
-
-
-
Viviparity
- live birth (eggs are hatched inside mother)
- Mother provides nutrients
-
Ovipery
- lays eggs
- hard shell, tempersture resistant
-
Ovovipary
- eggs hatch inside mother
- Mother Doesn't provide nutirents
-
Metamorphosis
changes form as life cycle proggresses
-
Holometabulous- standard metemorphesis
Egg, larva, pupa, adult
-
Hemimetabolus
- Has Nymph stage
- Egg, nymph, adult
-
-
Which species has the most Phyla
Anthropoda (1,100,000)
-
8 most populated phyla
- Porifera
- Cnidaria
- Annelida
- Mollusca
- Nematoda
- Anthropada
- Chordasta
-
Porifera
Most primative- sponges
-
Cnidarians
- Radial symetry
- Diploplastic
- Gastrovasular cavity
- (jellyfish)
-
Platyhelminthes
- Bilateral symetry
- Triplobastic
- aceolomate
- (flat worms)
-
Annelida
- Segmented worms
- ceolom cavity
- leeches
-
Mollusca
- True ceolom
- not segmented
- often a shell
- (Snalis)
-
Nematoda
- not segmented
- many are parasites
- ecdysis
- Psuedoceolom
-
Infection due to nematods
- Elephantism
- Heart worm
- intestinal worms
- eye worms
-
Anthropoda
- largest phylum
- Ecdysis
- jointed limbs
-
-
Notochord
Internal strengthaning rod (spine)
-
4 tissue types
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- Nervous
-
Epithelial
- Sheets of cells
- basement membrane
-
connective tissue
- extracellular matrix
- fibers
-
Muscle tissue
- Most abundant tissue in animals
- Cells contact
-
3 types of muscle tissue
- skeleton
- cardiac
- smooth muscle (liver)
-
Basement membrane
barriar to external forces
-
Nervous tissue
- neurons
- signals by chemicals and electricity
-
Levels of orginization
- atoms/molocules
- cells
- tissues
- organs
- organ systems
- organisms
-
Ratio of surface area to volume
determines the need for organs
-
large volume =
longer time for diffusion
-
-
-
-
Heat production=
used energy
-
Ways to measure metobolic rate
- heat produced
- O2 in compared to CO2 out
-
warm blooded
creates metabolic heat
-
-
-
Larger animals have...(metabolism)?
a per gram smaller metobolic rate
-
smaller species have higher...? (metabolic rate)
-
Matabolic rate depends on...?
- Age, Sex, Size
- Amount of available oxygen
- Hormone balance
- body temperature
- time of day
-
Adaptations for larger surface area
-
Body Regulates...?
- Blood ph
- Blood Oxygen
- Electrolytes
- blood glucose
-
-
-
-
Negative feedbacl
stimulus responds in oposing direction
-
positive feedback
body reacts same as stimulus
-
Positive feedback (examples)
- coughing
- blood clotting
- child birth contractions
-
4 methods of heat exchange
- radiation
- conduction
- evaporation
- convection
-
-
Warming mechanisms
- vasoconstriction
- shivering
-
heat loss centers activated
- blood dialates
- sweat glands stimulated
- respitory centers stimulated
-
heat gain centers activated
- blood near skin constricts
- shivering
- increase in respiration and heat production
-
vasodilation
open blood vessles
-
vasoconstriction
close blood vessles
-
-
-
metabolic heat production
shivering
-
thermogenisis
breakdown of brown fat
-
Behavioral response to external stimulus
- into/out of the sun
- torpor
- Migration
-
torpor
Inactive period (hibernation, aestivation)
-
Bergmans rule
northern poulations have larger bodies than their southern cousins
-
Allen's rule*
species in cold climates have shorter apendages
* disproved, could be physiological
-
-
Electrolytes
dissolved ions in bodily fluid
-
Common electrolytes
- sodium
- chlorine
- potassium
- calcium
-
diffussion
moving from high to low concentration
-
-
Active transport
uses energy to force against concentration gradient
-
% of salinity
Fresh water
Ocean
-
osmoconformers
- animals match their environment
- mostly marine animals
-
Osmoregulators
adjust internal concentration
-
Hyoptonic to ocean:
Problems
Solutions
- loose water by osmosis
- gain electrolytes by diffussion
- Drink water
- reduce amount of urine
- active transport
-
Hypertonic to fresh water
Problems
Solutions
- Gain water by osmosis
- loose electrolytes by diffussion
- Don't drink water
- lotes of urine
- add electrolytes in diet and by active transport
-
Channel
allows ions to pass through the membrane
-
carrier
uses duffussion to pass electrolytes through membrane
-
Cotransporters
- active transport that doesn't need ATP
- Energy from one mechanism creates energy for another (genarator pump)
-
Symporter
uses a first molecuel to move a second one in the same direction
-
Antiporter
uses first molecule to move a second in the opposite direction
-
TMAO
trimethylamine oxide
-
In Vitro
Outside the body
-
Cotransporter does what when dealing with both fresh and sea water...?
flips sides of the cell membrane
-
Land animals (water mechanisms)
-
-
Spiracle
small cell group that guards the air opennings in insects
-
Nitrogenous waste
ussually made into amonia
-
Amonia is coverted to ___ and ___ in non aquatic animals
-
Uric acid
not soluble in water
-
mamals convert amonia to...?
urea
-
Nephron structure (in order)
- Glomerulus
- Proximal tubules
- Loop of Henle
- Distal Tubules
- Collecting duct
-
Glomerulus
forces excess liquid from blood
-
Bowmans capsule
catches excess liquid from Glomerulus
-
Proximal tubules
reabsorbs water into tubules
-
Loop of Henle
Reduces water, then salt content (adjusts for appropiate volume of waste)
-
Vasa recta
surrounds loop of henle, absorbs water and salt
-
Distal tubule
adjust final concentration levels
-
collecting duct
gathers excess water and salt removed in the distal tubule
-
ADH
- brain chemical
- causes less urination
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