-
although radiology seldom yields a final diagnosis, how does it contribute
creation of an adequate differential diagnoses list
-
when is radiology, as a diagnostic modality, selected
when the history and physical exam suggests a possible benefit
-
The body is divided into dorsal and ventral portions by a ___ plane
Dorsal (frontal) plane
-
What section cuts parallel to the long axis of an organ or limb?
Longitudinal section
-
The human term anterior corresponds with what veterinary terms
Crainial on limbs, rostral on face and ventral on body.
-
Where are superior and inferior used in veterinary medicine
For the eyes and some other head structures, replacing dorsal and ventral respectively
-
the human term posterior corresponds with ___ and ___
Caudal (limbs and head); Dorsal ( body)
-
Give and example of each type of bone according to shape
Short (carpal or tarsal), flat ( most facial bones) irregular (vertebral, some facial) sesamoid (patella and sesamoids) long (most bones of limbs)
-
What is the space in the diaphysis containing the marrow
Medullary cavity
-
What is the fibrous and cellular tissue lining the medullary cavity of a bone
Endosteum
-
What is an apophysis
any outgrowth of a bone, i.e. a process
-
What are the spicules of bone separated by spaces in cancellous bone
Trabeculae
-
What is any prominent, roughened, projection from a bone
Process
-
What is a large, knuckle-like articular prominence
condyle
-
a ____ is a tube-like canal through a bone
meatus
-
what is a smooth, flat, articular surface
facet/fovea
-
What is the pulley-shaped structure of the femur
Trochlea
-
What is a prominence above a condyle
Epicondyle
-
A ___ is an opening through a bone
Foramen
-
List the bones and cartilages of the axial skeleton
skull including mandible, hyoid apparatus, vertebral column or backbone (cervical thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, caudal) bony thorax (ribs, sternum (mandibular, xiphoid bond))
-
What is the appendicular skeleton
consists of the bones of the limbs
-
lst the bones of the thoracic limb, pectoral limb, or forelimb
clavicle (cat, dog no) scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones (radial carpal bone, accessory carpal bone) metacarpal bones, digitial bones (proximal phalanx or p1, middle phalanx or p2, distal phalanx or p3, proximal sesamoid bones or sesamoids)
-
List the bones of the pelvic limb or hind limb
Bony pelvix (hip bone or ossa coxae (ilium, ischium, pubis)) femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones (calcaneus, talus) metatarsal bones, digit bones (see thoracic limb bones)
-
how are synovial joints classified by their number of articular surfaces
into ? simple or compound
-
give an example of a compound joint
stifle, elbow > than 2 articular surfaces
-
give examples of a hinge joint
elbow, proximal interphalangeal joint
-
a ___ or ____ joint allows flexion and extension
ginglymus or hinge
-
give examples of a plane joint
carpal, small tarsal bones, cranial and caudal articulations between vertebrae
-
what is a uniaxial joint allowing rotation around a longitudinal axis of a bone
pivot joint
-
give an example of a pivot joint
atlantoaxial joint, proximal radioulnar
-
what uniaxial joint is formed by 2 condyles of one bone fitting into concavities of another bone
condylar joint
-
give an example of a condylar joint
femorotibial (stifle) , temporomandibular, atlanto-occipital
-
what type of action is permitted by a condylar joint
flexion and extension and a little rotation
-
what structural type of joint is characterized by its mobility
synovial
-
of what does the joint capsule of a synovial joint consist
outer fibrous layer and inner synovial layer -membrane
-
what is the fxn of articular cartilage
reduces concussion and friction effects
-
what are the strong bands of white fibrous tissue uniting bones
ligaments
-
what plate of fibrocartilage partially or completely divides the joint cavity of the stifle and temporomandibular joint
meniscus or disc
-
what sac-like structure is found between different tissues
bursa
-
what is the origin of a muscle
proximal or usually least movable attachment
-
what is the insertion of a muscle
distal or usually more movable attachment
-
which attachment is the origin for the extrinsic limb muscles and the muscles of the rest of the body
least movable
-
what attaches muscle to a bone
tendon running through the entire muscle
-
what structure attaches two bones
ligament
-
what type of muscle's fibers encircle an opening
sphincter
-
how do muscles work mechanically
by pulling, not pushing
-
in anatomy how does the lenth of a name compare to the importance of a structure
longer the name, less important (ex aorta -important, extensor pollicis longus et indicis proprius -less important
-
define extension and flexion
extension: increases angle between bones flexion: decreases angle
-
define supination and pronation
supination: palmar surface dorsal, pronation: palmar surface ventral
-
what is movement of an extremity in a plane describing the surface of a cone?
circumduction
-
what motion moves a part forward? returning a protracted part to its usual position
protraction: retraction
-
what is the bending of the spinal column dorsally or ventrally
dorsal or ventral flexion
-
what are the 2 broad categories of thoracic limb muscle and what defines them
- extrinsic: connect limb to body
- intrinsic: both attachments in limb
-
what are the 2 main muscles of the arm (brachial mm) and what are their actions
- biceps brachii: flex elbow
- triceps brachii : extend elbow
-
how do respiratory muscles work due to their location
inspiratory mm, located cranially, increase size of thorax by pulling ribs cranially and laterally (diaphragm moves caudally)
-
what is the principal muslces of inspiration
diaphragm
-
what ventral abdominal muscle is on either side of the linea alba
rectus abdominis muscle
-
where are the "hamstring" muscles located
caudal thigh
-
why are the flexors and extensors different in the leg and forepaw
flexor side of the tarsus and digits different but same for the carpus and digits
-
what are the muscles that connect the eye and the body , move the eye, and are innervated byt the 3rd, 4th and 6th cranial nn
extrinsic muscles of the eye
-
what are 2 components of nervous tissue
neurons or nerve cells (functional unit of the nervous system) neuroglia cells ( the supporting structurs of nervous tissue) both are bathed in extracellular fluid
-
list the parts of neurons or nerve cells
cell body (soma or perikaryon) the control (trophic) center; nucleus (prominent nucleolus); nerve processes: 2 types extend from the cell: dendrites (receptor) axon (info away from cell body); synaptic knobs/telodendria (synaptic vesicles)
-
given an example of a central and a peripheral neuroglia
- cns: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia
- pns: schwann cells
-
discuss schwann cells
neuroglia of the pns that form myelin sheaths by winding around nerve processes. myelin is a lipoprotein forming a sheath around nerve processes that fxn to increase the speed of impulse conduction and to insulate the nerve process. nodes of ranvier are unmyelinated gaps btwn segments of the myelin sheath
-
define a synapse
a specialized site of apposition where info passes from one nerve cell to another cell
-
describe the components of a synapse
1st cell: presynaptic cell (always a nerve) 2nd: postsynaptic cell (neuron, a muscle or a gland) with synaptic cleft btwn
-
describe a synaptic event
neuron action potential propagates down the axon to the synaptic know of the presynaptic cell, causing the synaptic vesicles to release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. the neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane causing a change in the postsynaptic memb. if the postsyn cell is a neuron, the event can initiate or inhibit another NAP in the postsyn n. if it is a muscle, it may result in contraction
-
what type of nerve fibers pass thru dorsal and ventral roots
dorsal: sensory ventral: motor
-
which root of spinal nerves brings sensory fibers to the spinal cord
dorsal root
-
what is the swelling of the dorsal root
dorsal root ganglia, cell bodies of sensory fibers
-
what spinal root carries motor nerve fibers from cell bodies in the spiinal cord to muscles and glands
ventral root
-
describe the components of a reflex arc
- stimulus: a change in the environment -a pin prick/noxious stim
- receptor: sensory neuron's dendritic zone -pain detection -that generates an impulse
- sensory aff neuron: carries sensory impulses to the cns
- interneuron or assoc neuron: in spinal cord, connects a sensory neuron with motor neuron. also connects with other neurons to the brain -as an ouch
- motor eff neuron or lmn: carries an impulse to an effector organ
- effector target organ: the muscle or gland innervated by a motor neuron which reacts to the stimulus - pull away from stove
-
ventral branches of spinal nerves interlace to form
plexuses
-
plexuses are formed by the ventral branches of the spinal nerve in every region except which
thorax
-
the ventral branches of the thoracic nerves do not form a plexus, but pass in the intercostal spaces as ____ nerves
intercostal nn
-
what is the fxn of the ANS
maintain homeostasis of an organism
-
autonomic fxns are mainly set up by ___ ___
reflex arcs: visceral sensory and motor nn
-
what are the 2 divisions of the ANS
parasympathetic and sympathetic division
-
what is the fight or flight division of the ANS
sympathetic
-
the visceral effectors of the ANS usually have a ___ innervation
dual
-
what are the cell bodies of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers?
in the nuclei of cranial nn 3,7,9,10 in the brain stem and the sacral spinal cord segment
-
where are the cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic fibers
intermediolateral gray matter of the spinal cord
-
the ANS, although said to be involuntary, is still controlled by___?
higher centers in the brain: cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and medulla oblongata
-
what are the neurotransmitters of the ANS
- acetylcholine: preganglionic for both and postganglionic parasympathetic
- norepinephrine : postganglionic sympathetic
-
what gland is part of the sympathetic ANS
adrenal glands (medulla)
-
what results from sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal gland
norepinephrine dumped into blood stream = massive sympathetic response
-
why is the parasympathetic activity more discrete than the sympathetic
ACh is destroyed locally, NorE is dumped into the blood stream by the adrenals
-
what are the ANS structures in the neck
vagosympathetic trunk and vertebral n
-
with what is the vagosympathetic trunk intimately associated
common carotid a in the carotid sheath
-
what is the parasympathetic innervation to the head?
sympathetic?
- cranial nerves 3 7 9 10
- postganglionic from cranial cervical ganglion
-
what is the sympathetic innervation to the abdomen?
para?
splanchic nn, collateral ganglion and plexuses
vagus: eo end of the transverse colon; pelvic n descending colon
-
what is the sympathetic innervation to the pelvis?
para?
hypogastric n
pelvic nerves
-
how do the abdominal muscles attach to the linea alba
by aponeurosis - flat tendons
-
what is the rectus sheath
aponeurosis of the abdominal mm, around the rectus abdominis m meet/fuse at the linea alba
-
which rectus sheath is most clinically important
external rectus sheath
-
list the parts of the large intestine
cecum, colon and rectum, anal canal
-
list the parts of the female reproductive tract
ovary, uterine tube, uterus (horns, body, and cervix) vagina, vestibule, vulva (labie and clitoris)
-
list the 3 parts of the uterus
cervix, body, horns
-
what is the external female genitalia and its components
vulva consisting of the labia and clitoris in the clitoral fossa ventrally inside the labia
-
what marks the division btwn the vagina and vestibule
external urethral orifice
-
what suspends the female reproductive tract in the abdomen
broad ligament - connecting peritoneum
-
list the parts of the male reproductive tract
testicle in scrotum, epididymis, ductus defferens, prostate, urethra, penis ( root, body, glans)
-
what is the superficial inguinal ring
slit in the aponeurosis of the external abdominal oblique muscle -eao
-
what extends from the superficial iguinal ring to the testicle
spermatic cord
-
what serosa connects the visceral and parietal vaginal tunics
mesorchium -connecting vaginal tunic
-
what is the vaginal ring
point of evaginationof peritoneum thru inguinal canal, forming opening btwn peritoneal and vaginal cavities
-
what is the only accessory ex gland in the dog? cat?
prostate (if ampulla of ductus differens not included ) cat also has bulbourethral gland
-
what cutaneous sheath surrounds the end of the quiescent penis
prepuce or sheath
-
what are the 2 principal divisions of the circulatory system
blood vascular and lymph vascular systems
-
what makes up the blood vascular system
blood, heart, arteries, capillaries and veins
-
what system does the heart drive
blood vascular system
-
what vessels travel toward the heart
veins
-
what is the definition of an artery
vessels that travel away from the heart
-
what are capillaries
microscopic vessels exchanging oxygen and wastes with tissues
-
what is interstitial fluid
fluid bathing the body's cells
-
what vein returns blood from the head, neck, thoracic limb and cranial part of the thoracic cavity walls to the right atrium
cranial vena cava
-
what vein returns blood to the heart from the abd, pelvis and pelvic limb
caudal vena cava
-
what carries blood from the right heart to the lungs
pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries
-
what returns blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart
pulmonary veins
-
in the carnivores, what are the branches of the aortic arch
brachiocephalic and left subclavian
-
what part of the aorta is divided into thoracic and abdominal parts
descending aorta
-
what is the main artery in the brachium
brachial artery
-
name the main branches of the terminal aorta
2 external iliac, 2 internal iliac, and 1 median sacral -arteries
-
hat terminal branch of the aorta supplies the pelvic viscera and part of the hip and thigh
internal iiac artery
-
what are the terminal branches of the internal iliac artery
internal pudendal and caudal gluteal aa
-
what is the main branch to the pelvic viscera?
and specifically to the uterus
vaginal or prostatic artery; uterine artery off vaginal
-
what is the direct continuation of the external iliac artery out of the abdominal cavity to the pelvic limb for which it is the main supply
femoral artery
-
what is the main branch of the vaginal artery
uterine artery
-
what is the blood supply to the uterus in the carnivores
uterine artery and uterine branch of the ovarian artery
-
what is the name of the coiled testicular vein around the testicular artery in the spermatic cord
pampiniform plexus
-
how are the deep veins of the limbs named
for the arteries they travel with
-
ouline where the cephalic vein is
arises on the palmar side of the paw, travels proximally, wrapping around to the cranial side, by the accessory cephalic v, then continues up the cranial forearm and elbow to eventually empty into the external jugular v
-
what superficial vein arises from the dorsum of the paw and joins the cephalic vein proximal to the carpus
accessory cephalic vein
-
what veins form the external jugular vein
maxillary and linguofacial vv
-
what are the large valveless venous passages located within the dura that drain the brain and skull
dural sinuses
-
what makes up the lymphatic system
lymphatic tissues and vessels -lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymph nodules, peyer's patches, tonsils, thymus and spleen
-
describe lymphatic vessels
similar to veins, bit thinner walls, more valves, and lymph nodes along their course
-
describe a typical lymph node
oviod or bean-shaped encapsulated lymphoid tissue scattered along the course of the medium-sized lymphatic vessels
-
list the superficial lymph nodes of the body and their locations
parotid lymph nodes below ear, mandibular LN -near the angle of the mandible - superficial cervical LN - cranial to the shoulder joint - popliteal LN -behind the stifle - superficial inguinal -mammary or scrotal - btwn then trunk and thigh
-
what are the LN located around the tracheal bifurcation that drain the lungs
tracheobronchial LN
-
what are the lymphoepithelial structures or masses of unencapsulated lymphoid tissue within various mucous membranes that protect the entrances into the body
tonsils
-
what is the largest lymphoid organ in the body
spleen
-
what LN are located in the cranial mediastinum
cranial mediastinal LN
-
LN ___ the lymph passing thru them
filter
-
what is another name for the skin
common integument, cutis
-
name 3 structures that consist of common integument
sweat glands, skin, claws, hoof, horn, hair
-
why is the skin thick on the neck
to protect the external jug vein
-
what are the long filamentous appendages of skin
hair
-
how does the epidermis receive nutrition
blood vessels in dermis
-
what are the long course hairs sensory to touch called
tactile hair or vibrissae
-
where are tactile hairs found
above the eyes, on muzzle, behind carpus
-
what are the upper and lower eyelids called
superior and anferior palpebrum
-
what is the opening surrounded by the eyelids
palpebral fissure
-
what is the clear rostral part of the eyeball
cornea
-
list 3 fxn of the cornea
a. physical barrier b. let light into the eye c.refract the light
-
what is the void in the center of the iris
pupil
-
what is the colored part of the eye
iris
-
how does the third eyelid protect the eye
covers eye when eyeball is retracted
-
what is the general structure rostral to the eyes called
muzzle
-
what is the groove in the upper lip and btwn the nostrils
philtrum
-
what are the fxns of the teeth in dogs
weapons and prehensile tools
-
how do dogs eat their food
grasp, tear and gulp with little mastication
-
list the type of teeth and their abbreviations
incisors, canines, cheek teeth, premolars, molars
-
what is the muscular organ filling the oral cavity that's used for prehension and lapping up fluid
tongue
-
what is the tissue surrounding the neck of the teeth
gums
-
the ears can be directed to sounds ___ of each other
independent
-
what is the flap of cartilage and skin of the visible part of the ear
pinna
-
of what does the bony thorax consist
thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
-
what is formed by the sternebrae on the ventral sufrace of the chest
sternum
-
name the cranial, most sternebrae
manubrium
-
what is the caudal end of the sternum which is made of cartilage
xiphoid process
-
name the last rib on each side not attached to the costal arch
free or floating rib -unique to dog
-
where do u palpate the floating ribs on the standing dog
caudal and dorsal to the costal arch
-
what are the mammary glands of the dog called
mammae
-
list the mammae of the dog
2 pairs, thoracic, 2 pairs: abdominal and 1 pair inguinal
-
what is the base of the tail on the top line of the body called
tail head
-
what is the perineum
closes the pelvic outlet around the terminal parts of the urogenital and digestive tracts
-
what does the external perineum or perineal regiong include
anus and vulva in the female -even though the vulva projects below the level of the pelvic floor - to just above scrotum in dog
-
what are the boundaries of the perineum
base of tail: doral; tuber ischii -whorls of hair. later ; past the vulva in the female and to the base of the scrotum in the male -past in cats: ventral
-
what is the exit of the GI tract located right below the tail
anus
-
where are the specific openings of the anal sacs
mucocutaneous junctions - where the mucous membrane meets the skin- at the 4 and 8 o clock position
-
what is the proper name of the arm pit
axilla
-
what is the proper name of the arm
brachium
-
with what is the word brachium easy to confuse
brachy -meaning short
-
what is the proper name of the forearm
antebrachium
-
what structure does the carpus, metacarpus, and digits compose
manus
-
what is the area btwn the back legs on the stomach
inguinal region
-
where would u find the tibia and fibula
crus or true leg (gaskin)
-
what is the distal part of the hind limp consisting of the tarsus, metatarsus, and digits called? what does it correspond to in humans
pes, the human foot
-
what is the common name for the tarsus
hock
-
what tough, thickened common integument does a dog walk on
foot pads
-
man is plantigrade, what are dogs
digitigrade
-
what does digitigrade mean
stand on their digits
-
what is the thickening over the palmar surface of the carpus?
carpal pad
-
what is the very large single, triangular-shaped pad palmar to the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal junction
metacarpal/metatarsal pad
-
what are the pads on the distal end of each digit
digital pads
-
name the rudimentary first digits on the fore and sometimes hind limbs
dew claws
-
which limbs are more likely to have dewclaws
forelimbs
-
what are the spaces between the digits
interdigital spaces
-
what is the modified epidermis enclosing the dog's ungual process
claw
-
name the toughest skin of carnivores
pads
-
how is the visible image created
passage of ionizing radiation - energy through the body, interaction of the excaped radiation with intensifying screens, the action of subsequent emitted light with film, and the effect of developing chemicals
-
a radiograph is basically a negative therefore, the whiter or darker, the film is tells us what
- lighter: more underexposed
- darker: more overexposed
-
how does a radiograph machine create a directed beam of electrodes
passes electrons from a cathode thru a vacuum to hit the anode giving off x rays -photons - as a beam and creating heat. beam leaves lead box thru shuttered opening
-
describe a radiographic cassette
holds the radiograph film sandwiched btwn intensifying screens
-
how is the object to be radiographed placed in relationship to the x ray machine and the cassette
placed on the cassette between it and the tube head
-
what is the part of the x ray machine allowing restriction of the size of the beam leaving the machine
collimator
-
describe a radiograph film
a piece of plastic with a bilayer of silver halide emulsion
-
how does the silver alide emulsion on a radiographic film react with x ray or light and become a readiograph
xray/ light activates silver halide process: developer crystallizes activated silver halide = silver medal, which appears black, sticks to the plastic. fixer clears unreacted silver halide leaving only the plastic film
-
what is a fluorescent light source for viewing radiographs
viewer
-
what is a strong source of light placed behind the film to view over exposed areas -darker than desire
spotlight or hot light
-
what are the 3 things that can happen to the part of the beam hitting the object
reflection -scatter, further transmission- penetration, absorption
-
what is scatter
reflection or compton scatter: the redirection of a percentage of the primary beam striking an object's surface
-
what affects penetration and transmittance
bth the object's thickness and density
-
what is the inverse square law
intensity varies with the square of the distance or doubling the distance quarters the effective power
-
what is divergence in relationship to radiology
spreading of the primary beam or scatter as it moves away from the source
-
b/c of divergence in radiology, how does placement on the cassette affect the radiograph
closer the object is to the cassette, the less divergence, thus, the smaller -closer to normalsize - and sharper its image -farther from the cassette, the larger magnification effect and fuzzier
-
what is radiographic opacity
degree of whitening of a film caused by xrays passing thru a part
-
what determines a part's radiographic density
parts density and thickness
-
is an underexposed or an over exposed film better, y?
overexposed, if not in film no way to get it in, bit if in may see with a spotlight
-
what is denser fat or water
water - fat floats
-
how does the heart appear radiographically, y?
solid gray shadow disc, as fluid filled ventricles not demarcated from the soft tissue walls
-
what are the water densities seen in radiographs
soft tissue densities- viscera, musclees and fluids, all appear similar not easily distinguished
-
can blood, urine, chyle, exudates and transudates be distinguished from each other radiographically
no
-
what can cause a darker shadow than expected on a radiograph
decrease in the subject density or its size
-
what is a structure that allows most of the xrays to pass thru it, resulting in a dark shadow on the film
radiolucent - dark
-
what type of structure blocks most of the xrays resulting in a white shadow on the film
radiopaque - white
-
what id does a film need in addition to r and l markers
labe identifying the client, animal, date, and facility performing the study and if a timed study, the time elapsed after the procedure started
-
what can be used to properly place the animal in relation to beam direction without having to use people
sand bags and positioning devices
-
some studies, such as abdominal radiographs, are comprised by food and fecal material in the gi tract. what preparation should be done in these cases
withhold food twelve hours to prior to radiography and perhaps using an enema
-
what are artifacts -made by human hand - on radiographs
not part of the animal, ex dirt, wet hair, ointments, or iodine, static discharge, processing mistakes, and physical damage to screens or films
-
what can be done to minimize artifacts on radiographs
clean the animal first and care with films
-
what should be foremost in ur mind whenever radiographing
safety
-
although invisible, xrays are very dangerous and additive over time, so general rule is
never place any part of body in the primary beam. wear lead aprons, gloves and stand behind a lead shield whenever possible to block secondary scatter radiation
-
to max safety what is the rule about the primary beam
always collimated to no larger than the size of the cassette or regiong being studied
-
how is the beam dierction used for naming radiographic views
first passes into the body or part, followed by where it exits the body or body part to reach the film
-
how do films shot from an opposite direction look
difficult to differentiate without markers. a cr/ca view and ca/cr view will look identical in small animals b/c radiographs have no depth
-
how is a lateral medial view taken
beam enters the lateral side and leaves the medial side
-
how are lateral views of the small animal limbs usually taken
usually from medial to lateral so limb can be put on the cassette
-
how are ca/cr or posterior/anterior taken
beam enters caudal/post side and exits cranial/ant of limb above the carpus/tarsus
-
how are lateral body cavity films named
named for where the beam exits the body: animal in left lateral recumbency -r side up, l side down - left lateral projection
-
what structures are silhouetted by craniocaudally, dorsopalmar, or dorsoventral beam direction
lateral and medial structures
-
silhouetted caudal and cranial structures indicate the beam was directed how
lateromedially or mediolaterally - accessory carpal bone silhouetted
-
what helps you orient the views and indicate the direction of the beam
anatomical landmarks
-
what does silhouetted mean when discussing radiographs
edges of a structure are contrasted against air or soft tissue
-
how should films be read instead of looking at the lines, grays and shadows to try to identify the anatomic structure they represent
work from a list of the structures that you expect to see and locate each in a specific order. the first approach will miss agenesis -absence - or an organ b/c there will be nothing to see
-
what are broken bones called and when do they heal in young and old animals
fractures - young 4-6 weeks, old 8 weeks
-
healing of a fx begins with the formation of a ___
callus
-
what can look radiologically identical to osteomyelitis
bone tumors/osteosarcoma - irregular sunburst appearance
-
how do u differentiate radiographically identical looking bone infections or tumors
a bone biopsy and culture
-
what is the #1 bone tumor in small animals
osteosarcoma
-
what characterizes an early osteosarcoma? what does this necessitate
early metastasizes so chest radiographs needed. radiology shows rough and irregularly sunburst appearance
-
what is the bulging of the sheath due to a pathological increase in synovial fluid
hygroma of the tendon sheath
-
list 3 common sites of osteochondrosis in dogs
shoulder -caudal head, elbow -medial condyle of humerus, stifle - medial or lateral femoral condyle, and tarsus - medial trochlear of the talus
-
what is an infection in a joint with bacteria, virus and or fungus that causes cartilage damage
septic arthritis - bacterial or infectious
-
define djd
progressive deterioration of articular cartilage due to many causes - trauma, age, oc, infection
-
how does djd start
synovitis: results in progressive degradation of cartilage
-
how does djd appear radiographically
marginal osteophyte - new bone at joint capsule attachment - formation is the hallmark,subchondral bone sclerosis or irregularity, and narrowing of joint space
-
what is and unhealed fx, having all the structurs of a synovial joint
false joint - tx requires resection, graft, and compression flexion
-
what is an articular fx
fx that passes thru the articular cartilage
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what cause lyme disease, borrelliosis, what type of disease is it, what are clinical signs, and how is it tx'ed
caused by a spirochete carried by a tick, multisystem disease with clinical signs ranging from asymptomatic to chronic recurrent, intermittent lameness arthritis and fever. tetracycline results in rapid clinical improvement -good prognosis
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what is a rare disease of cats due to a raw liver diet or excessive vitamin A supplementation? give mechanisms and signs
hypervitaminosis A; inhibits calcification of the skeleton, resulting in lameness and neck or joint stiffness
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what are 2 types of angular limb deformities
valgus and varus
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what are the classic signs of tetanus
y
- pump handle tail, saw horse stance, lockjaw and sardonic grin
- toxin passes up nerves and then spinal cord blocking inhibitory neurons and resulting in tonic/clonic muscle spasms
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define tremor
intention tremor
small, rapid, alternating movements at rest
a tremor that becomes worse with initiation of a movement and disappears at rest
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what does an intention tremor indicate
cerebellar disease
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what is the most common nystagmus
most commonly, it is a rhythmic jerking with a fast and slow component
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how is nystagmus described
by the direction of the quick component
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how do the eyes move with nystagmus at rest
eyes move to the side of the lesion and snap back
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what does nystagmus at rest indicate
abnormality, usually indicates vestibular dysfunction
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define myoclonus - flexor spasm
coarse jerking movements of muscle groups at rest
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define dysmetria
improper measuring of distance in muscular activity, either too short or too long a range or motion - goose stepping
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what type of disease causes dysmetria
cerebellar disease - especially hypermetria
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what is paralysis of the orbicularis oculi and loss of lacrimation the most vital results of facial nerve paralysis
drying of eye, animals not vain
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what is miosis
constriction of pupil
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what is enophthalmos
sinking of eyeball
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what is ptosis of the upper eyelid
drooping of upper eyelid
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what LN are located in the cranial mediastinum
cranial mediastinal LN
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why are LN important indicators of infection
respond to pathogens they filter by enlargements
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why is care taken when evaluatin enlargement of LN
large variations in size btwn individuals and even sides of the same animal
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where can neoplastic cells metastasize by lymph channels
lungs - thru general circulation - also to more centrally located LN
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why are needle or surgical biopsies of LN performed
to evaluated changes for diagnostic purposes
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why are LN cut and checked during meat inspection and necropsy
checked for changes in color and consistency indicting pathogenic processes
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what normal structures can be mistaked for lytic -dissolved - areas of the cortex
nutrient foramina
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what should be done if question arise from a radiograph of a limb
shoot a comparison films of opposite limb
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what does the lateral view highlight
cranial and caudal or dorsal and palmar/plantar surfaces of bones
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what are radiographic landmarks for the lateral side of the limb
spina of scapula, greater tubercle of humerus, distal ulna, accessory carpal bone
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what are radiographic landmarks for the medial side of the thoracic limb
radial carpal bone, dewclaw
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what are caudal/palmar landmarks of the forelimb
head of humerus, olecranon, accessory carpal
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what does the craniocaudal or dorsopalmar view highlight
medial and lateral structures of the limb
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what 2 normal structures that can be mistaken for fx in the forearm
anconeal process of ulna, sesamoid. bones of digits or lateral collateral ligament of the elbow, accessory ossicle of caudal scapula
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what is a thological osseous outgrowth seen radiographically
osteophyte/enthesiophyte/bone spur
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do you look for radiographic changes in the cartilage in osteochondrosis (OC)
no can't see, check subchondral bone
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list 2 of 4 common sites of OC
#1 shoulder, medial humeral condyle, medial and lateral femoral doncyle, proximal medial trochlea
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what is the #1 site for OC in the dog, describe appearance compared to normal
- caudal aspect of the head of the humerus
- -normal: smooth and round, with no flattening
- -OCD: flattening or cratering with subchondral bone sclerosis and or joint mouse
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what can the cat's clavicle be mistaken for in a lateral radiograph
bone in the esophagus
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what can premature closure of either proximal or distal radial physis cause?
subluxation of the humeral radial joint
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where is osteochondrosis of the elbow located
medial condyle of the humerus
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what is ununited anconeal process
failure of anconeal process to unite with ulna after 5 months of age
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what is fragmented medial coronoid process
improper development and fragmentation of cartilaginous precursor
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how are the medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus differentiated in a lateral radiograph
medail "squared" and extend further caudally than rounded lateral
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what is the location of most fx of the humerus
shaft -diaphysis
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what hinders retraction of the median nerve and brachial artery during sx in the cat
they pass thru the supracondylar foramen
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what can cause premature closure of a growth plate
injury to physis
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what happens if there is premature closure of the distal ulnar physis
cranial curvature of the radius and subluxation of elbow
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what is the quick that bleeds if a horny claw is cut too short
artery in the dermis over ungual process
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how is cuttine the quick prevented when trimming pigmented and unpigmented claws
- pigmented: shave off layers until white are reached -distal to quick - then use 1st to judge the rest
- unpigmented: don't cut into visible pink core
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what 2 methods of declawing ensures removal of the ungual crest
remove all to p3 or all, including ungual crest, but base of p3
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how is a declaw operation performed basically
guillotine ail clipper, blade in dorsal distal interphalangeal joint and other distal to digital pad
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briefly describe how a dewclaw is removed in a neonate
prep, cut dewclaw from metatarsal bones, single absorbable suture
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what is an unhealed fx, having all the structures of a synovial joint
false joint
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what is an articular separation called
luxation, subluxation, or dislocation
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with what does the shoulder joint communicate in the canine
intertubercular -bicipital, bursa
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wat helps prevent luxation of the shoulder
thickenings of joint capsule -glenohumeral ligaments - and adjacent muscles
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why is lateral luxation more likely of the dog's elbow
lateral epicondyle is smaller than medial
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define ununited anconeal process
failure of anconeal process to unite with ulna after 5 months of age
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when does the anconeal process unite in german shepherds
by 5 months
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what can fragmented medial coronoid process cause
degeneration of elbow joint
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what muscle is incised to open the elbow laterally
anconeus
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how can pus move from one area to another
along fascial planes
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how can a neck infection spread to the thorax
migrate down fascial planes to the thorax
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how are fascial planes used in sx
used as cleavage planes to reach deep structures relatively free of blood
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how do u determine unilatearl atrophy of shoulder muscles
compare muscles on both side by palpation
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at what level is it easier to amputate the forelimb and why
scapular removal is faster and easier than shoulder disarticulation
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why is leaving the scapula when amputating the forelimb cosmetically unacceptable in short haired breeds
atrophy = unsightly bony prominences
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how do dogs do on 3 limbs
most adapt well larger the animal the harder
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what is a tenetomy
transecting a tendon
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how is the superficial cervical LN palpated in a dog
retract arm and palpate ln deep to brachiocephalicus and cranial to supraspinatus mm, just dorsal to level of acromion
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how is the accessory axillary LN palpated if it is present
lay hand flat on thorax caudal to arm and stroke caudally
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why can a broken neck result in respiratory paralysis
phrenic nerve to diaphragm arises from cervical and brachial plexuses
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does the sensation to caudolateral aspect of the arm rule out complete brachial plexus avulsion, y?
no, because are innervated by the intercostobrachialis nn, which doesn't arise from the brachial plexus
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what results from damage to the suprascapular nerve
sweeney
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what is sweeney
atrophy of supraspinatus and infraspinatus mm =prominent scapular spine- suprascapular n damage
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where are high and low radial nerve injuries located
hight: before triceps, low after triceps
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what are signs of high radial nerve paralysis
inability to bear weight on limb, dropped elbow and knuckling over on digits
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signs of low radial nerve damage
knuckling over on digits
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to what common condition is low radial nerve paralysis a sequela
fx to the humerus
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what are 2 ways to tell if a nerve is damaged
loss of skin sensation and loss of motor innervations - loss of fxn or spongy feel to muscles
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what sensory loss is diagnostic for radial nerve injury
loss of sensation on dorsal manus
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how is knuckling of radial nerve paralysis compensated
flip the limb as it is advanced
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how is loss of motor neurons of the limbs determined
observance of gait, depression of tone and relexes, palpation of muscle atrophy
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how is loss of sensory neurons determined
analgesia - loss of sensation
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what is the most cranial aspect of the upper forelimb
point of the shoulder/greater tubercle
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what palpable process separates the lateral surface of the scapula
spine of the scapula
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what is the palpable distal end of the spine of the scapula just proximal to the point of the shoulder
acromion
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what is the projection on the palmar and lateral side of the carpus
accessory carpal bone
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