BIO FINAL

Atoms that have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons

Molecules that do not readily dissolve in water (nonpolar)

A substance that loses hydrogen ions in solution; pH less than 7

chemical reactions that do not require oxygen

a molecule that is specifically recognized and acted upon by an enzyme (the starting materials in an enzyme reaction)

Molecules that capture light energy, usually absorbing some wavelengths and reflecting others

successful colonization of a host species by another organism.

diseases that are more or less always present in a population but are confined to a small part of it

cell division that results in 2 daughter cells that have the same genetic information as each other and as the parent cell

a type of reproduction that does not result from meiosis and the fusion of egg and sperm cells

a picture or map of a cell's chromosomes arranged into their homologous pairs

all the pairs of chromosomes of the cell that are not involved in sex determination

three nitrogenous bases that code for a particular amino acid.

The full complement of genetic information of an organism (i.e., all of its genes and other DNA)

A particular form of a gene

The ability to manipulate genes and move them from one organism to another

Homologous Chromosomes

Metastasis

Zygote

Genetic Code

Restriction enzyme

Bell Curve

• Adenine
• Guanine
• Cytosine

• Genotypes: Ll & ll
• Phenotypes: Long Tails, and Short tails.

Environment

causes a “framshift” so that all codons after the insertion or deletion can code for incorrect amino acids during translation

FF or Ff

• Injected mice with the nonpathogenic (r-strain) and all the mice lived.
• Injected mice with heat killed disease causing strain (s-strain) and all the mice lived.
• Injected mice with a combination of the nonpathogenic (r-strain) and heat killed disease causing strain (s-strain) and all the mice died. The bacteria collected from the dead animals was all disease causing strain (s-strain)

Cell replacement, tissue repair, or asexual reproduction

Watson & Crick

Humans have approximately 20-25,000 genes (over 80% of human DNA is non-coding!)

Many examples possible – herbicide resistance introduced into crops (Round-up ready soybeans); crops that produce their own insecticides (BT corn); rice that makes vitamin A; sheep that make a human protein that treats emphysema in their milk, glow-in-the-dark rabbits, etc.

symbiotic relationship where one species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed

members of one species in a particular area

a population or group of populations that interbreed freely in the wild and does not interbreed with other populations and which can produce fertile offspring

the study of the interactions between living things and other living things and their physical environment

evolution due to chance events alone

process of community change which occurs in an area after disturbance

feeding levels within an ecosystem

warning coloration

therapeutic cloning

Mimicry

Niche

Gene Therapy

Consumers

prezygotic isolation occurs before fertilization of the egg while postzygotic occurs after a zygote is formed

If two species are competing with one another for the same limited resource, the species able to use that resource most efficiently will eventually eliminate the other species in that location

physical (e.g. thorns & needles) or chemical (allelochemics or toxins)

overproduction of offspring

Approximately 13 – 15 billion years ago the entire universe existed as a small point which blew up in a massive explosion we call the “Big Bang”. The universe continues to expand out from that beginning point.

These scientists wondered if organic molecules could have spontaneously formed from inorganic molecules. They enclosed a possible mix of inorganic chemicals that could have been present in Earth's atmosphere at the time that life first came into being and added an energy source (an electrical spark) to these chemicals. After a short period of time they examined the materials in their experiment and found that complex organic molecules (such as amino acids) had spontaneously formed from the mixture

The plants and animals that live in the mowed grass would gradually change over time to form a field, then a shrubby forest, then turn into a forest (the climax community of this area)

Increase age of first childbearing; increase age before marriage; increase education and work opportunities for women; make birth control and sex education available to women

Anatomical record & molecular record

Number of deaths; immigration; and emigration

• 1650 - 1/2 billion
• 1850 - 1 billion
• 1930 - 2 billion
• 1970 - 4 billion
• 2000 - 6 billion

the number of different species in an area and their relative abundance

Species which is in imminent danger of becoming extinct in the wild.

species which inhabit a small area and are found nowhere else.

the tendency for toxic substances to build up in progressively higher levels of a food chain.

an unstable molecular form of oxygen where 3 oxygen atoms are bonded together instead of the normal 2.

a worldwide increase in temperature resulting from increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

the blocking of outward heat radiation from the atmosphere by a group of chemicals known as greenhouse gases.

A group of man-made chemicals that release chlorine when they break down and have a great destructive effect on the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer.

• 99% Nitrogen & Oxygen
• 1% everything else

• bottom rectangle longest - producers
• next rectangle above smaller - primary consumers
• next - secondary consumers
• top rectangle (smallest) - tertiary consumers

A line of cells, all of which have arisen from the same single cell by mitotic division. One of a population of individuals derived by asexual reproduction from a single ancestor. One of a population of genetically identical individuals.

Genetic change in a population of organisms over time (generations). Darwin proposed that natural selection was the mechanism of evolution.

A community, together with the nonliving factors with which it interacts.

A change in a cell's genetic message.

A symbiotic relationship in which both participating species benefit.

The condition in which two or more dissimilar organisms live together in close association; includes parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.

A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed.

The eating of other organisms. The one doing the eating is called a predator, and the one being consumed is called the prey.

The populations of different species that live together and interact in a particular place.

A term that describes the long-term evolutionary adjustment of one group of organisms to another.

The place where individuals of a species live.

The food relationships within a community. A diagram of who eats whom.

The vehicle by which hereditary information is physically transmitted from one generation to the next. In a eukaryotic cell, long threads of DNA that are associated with protein and that contain hereditary information.

Unrestrained invasive cell growth. A tumor or cell mass resulting from uncontrollable cell division.

In genetics, a situation in which the effects of both alleles at a particular locus are apparent in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

The union of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

A special form of nuclear division that precedes gamete formation in sexually reproducing eukaryotes. It results in four haploid daughter cells.

The basic unit of heredity. A sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome that encodes a polypeptide or RNA molecule and so determines the nature of an individual's inherited traits.

The study of the way in which an individual's traits are transmitted from one generation to the next.

The process in which an RNA copy of each active gene is made, and the RNA copy directs the sequential assembly of a chain of amino acids at a ribosome.

The realized expression of the genotype. The observable expression of a trait (affecting an individual's structure, physiology, or behavior) that results from the biological activity of proteins or RNA molecules transcribed from the DNA.

A gene that produces more than one phenotypic effect.

An allele whose phenotype effects are masked in heterozygotes by the presence of a dominant allele.

The second stage of gene expression in which a ribosome assembles a polypeptide, using the mRNA to specify the amino acids.

The first stage of gene expression in which the RNA polymerase enzyme synthesizes an mRNA molecule whose sequence is complementary to the DNA.

A cell structure composed of protein and RNA that translates RNA copies of genes into protein.

The particular array of chromosomes that an individual possesses.

In humans, the X and Y chromosomes, which are different in the two sexes and are involved in sex determination.

The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I. The cause of Down syndrome.

An allele that dictates the appearance of heterozygotes. One allele is said to be dominant over another if an individual heterozygous for that allele has the same appearance as an individual homozygous for it.

The ability of two alleles to produce a heterozygous phenotype that is different from either homozygous phenotype.

Reproduction that involves the regular alternation between syngamy and meiosis. Its outstanding characteristic is that an individual offspring inherits genes from two parent individuals.

A molecule on which an enzyme acts.

A subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom that carries a positive charge. The number of protons determines the chemical character of the atom because it dictates the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus and available for chemical activity.

Refers to the concentration of H+ ions in a solution. The numerical value of the pH is the negative of the exponent of the molar concentration. Low pH values indicate high concentrations of H+ ions (acids), and high pH values indicate low concentrations (bases).

A simple organism that is small, single-celled, and has little evidence of internal structure.

The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use the energy of sunlight to create from carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) the more complicated molecules that make up living organisms.

A molecule that absorbs light.

A proposal that might be true. No hypothesis is ever proven correct. All hypotheses are provisional—proposals that are retained for the time being as useful but that may be rejected in the future if found to be inconsistent with new information. A hypothesis that stands the test of time—often tested and never rejected—is called a theory.

Describes polar molecules, which form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore are soluble in water.

Describes nonpolar molecules, which do not form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore are not soluble in water.

A subatomic particle located within the nucleus of an atom. Similar to a proton in mass, but as its name implies, a neutron is neutral and possesses no charge.

A subatomic particle with a negative electrical charge. The negative charge of one electron exactly balances the positive charge of one proton. Electrons orbit the atom's positively charged nucleus and determine its chemical properties.

A substance that cannot be separated into different substances by ordinary chemical methods.

A cell that possesses membrane-bounded organelles, most notably a cell nucleus, and chromosomes whose DNA is associated with proteins; an organism composed of such cells. The appearance of eukaryotes marks a major event in the evolution of life, as all organisms on earth other than bacteria and archaea are eukaryotes.

A protein capable of speeding up specific chemical reactions by lowering the energy required to activate or start the reaction but that remains unaltered in the process.

A core (nucleus) of protons and neutrons surrounded by an orbiting cloud of electrons. The chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by the distribution of its electrons, particularly the number of electrons in its outermost level.

Any substance that dissociates to form H+ ions when dissolved in water. Having a pH value less than 7.

Oxygen-requiring

Any process that can occur without oxygen. Includes glycolysis and fermentation. Anaerobic organisms can live without free oxygen.

An organic compound consisting of a chain or ring of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached in a ratio of approximately 1:2:1. A compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen having the generalized formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.

The smallest unit of life. The basic organizational unit of all organisms. Composed of a nuclear region containing the hereditary apparatus within a larger volume called the cytoplasm bounded by a lipid membrane.

The process in which the energy stored in a glucose molecule is released by oxidation. Hydrogen atoms are lost by glucose and gained by oxygen.

An atom in which the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons. An ion carries an electrical charge.

An atom that has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

A specialized compartment of a cell. Mitochondria are organelles.

Any factor that influences a process. In evaluating alternative hypotheses about one variable, all other variables are held constant so that the investigator is not misled or confused by other influences.

A well-tested hypothesis supported by a great deal of evidence.

The smallest unit of a compound that displays the properties of that compound.

A catabolic process in which the final electron acceptor is an organic molecule.

A long chain of amino acids linked end to end by peptide bonds. Because the 20 amino acids that occur in proteins have side groups with very different chemical properties, the function and shape of a protein is critically affected by its particular sequence of amino acids.

Refers to polar molecules that dissolve in water and are surrounded by a hydration shell.

Any substance that combines with H+ ions thereby reducing the H+ ion concentration of a solution. Having a pH value above 7.

A substance that takes up or releases hydrogen ions (H+) to maintain the pH within a certain range.

A nucleotide polymer. A long chain of nucleotides. Chief types are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is double-stranded, and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is typically single-stranded.

A loosely defined group of molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in oil. Oils such as olive, corn, and coconut are lipids, as well as waxes, such as beeswax and earwax.

• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Predictions
• Testing
• Controls
• Conclusion

• atoms
• molecules
• macromolecules
• organelles
• cells

• tissues
• organs
• organ systems
• organism

• population
• species
• community
• ecosystem

• Cellular organization
• metabolism
• homeostasis
• growth and reproduction
• heredity

successful colonization of a host species by another organism

illness caused by infection, diet, or environmental factors

diseases that break out irregularly among very few individuals in a population

diseases that are more or less always present in a population but are confined to a small part of it

when a disease quickly spreads through part of a population for a limited time then subsides

many epidemics of the same disease breaking out in severalcountries during the same interval

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light energy ----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

All organisms are composed of one or more cells

energy can change from one state to another but it can never be destroyed, nor can new energy be made (the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant)

• habitat loss
• species overexploitation
• species introductions

growing human populations and poverty; agriculture; cattle ranching; logging (note: most of these involve aspects of habitat destruction)

worldwide treaty to slow and stabilize greenhouse gas emissions, 1st draft in 1997

Human made chemicals, and are major destroyers of the ozone layer.

increase in human skin cancer; reduction of photosynthesis; etc.

An international agreement has been signed by most countries of the world to phase out the manufacture and use of CFCs

• average population growth in developing
• countries is much higher than in developed countries
• no single answer to carrying capacity of Earth
• for humans - depends on the quality of life that people desire and are willing to accept
• most estimates suggest that the human population
• will reach between 10-16 billion before stabilizing most estimates suggest that human populations
• will reach this level in the next 50-100 years

similar to volcanic gasses with no molecular oxygen

use in forensic science, each person has their own unique DNA sequence

• Human proteins manufactured in bacteria cells for medical treatments
• Plants that produce their own sectides
• Plants that are resistant to specific herbicides
• Crops that are more nutritious
• Ethical considerations

A sheep, the first cloned offspring from an adult cell

involves initiating blastocyst evelopment from a patient's tissue using nuclear transplant procedures, then using the blastocyst's embryonic stem cells to replace the patient's damaged or lost tissue.

Therapeutic cloning differs from reproductive cloning in that after the initial similar stages, embryonic stem cells from the early embryo are extracted, grown in culture, and added to a tissue of the individual who provided the nucleus.

In principle, it should be possible to cure hereditary disorders like cystic fibrosis by transferring a healthy gene into the cells of affected tissues.

provides the idea of “descent with modification” and the mechanism that causes change over time – natural selection (he published his ideas in the book: On the Origin of Species)

Nature decides which variations are the best for survival and reproduction. Those with the “best” variations will survive and reproduce while those with less desirable variations will die and their undesirable variations will not be passed on to the next generation

passing variations (genes or alleles) forward in time (reproductive success) is the key for being evolutionarily successful!

• Mutation
• Migration
• Denetic Drift
• Nonrandom Mating
• Selection

the ultimate source of genetic variation in a population

immigration and emigration

size of the population

Sexual Selection

• stabilizing
• disruptive
• directional selection

experiments show that organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of life can form spontaneously, as can cell-like structures (first steps toward the origin of life)

of life first forming in bubbles on the ocean’s surface

Prokaryotic life

aposomatic and cryptic coloration

Competition

coevolution

habitats more or less devoid of life

areas where an existing community has been severely disturbed

Only 5% to 20%

how many steps it is from the ecosystem’s energy source (usually the sun)

the amount of energy and nutrients that enter an ecosystem, the amounts captured, and the proportions stored in each trophic level

geologist who stated that the Earth was much older than previously thought, that change occurred gradually over long periods of time, and that the same forces involved with change at present worked the same way in the past and will work the same way in the future

• Exact replication of the cell’s chromosomes (genetic information)
• Daughter cells have the same genetic information as each other
• Daughter cells have the same genetic information as the parent cell
• Cytoplasmic division result in two cells from the original starting cell

Composed of DNA and protein molecules

There is a constant chromosome number within an organism’s body cells

There is a constant chromosome number within a given species of organism

Most eukaryotic multicellular organisms have their chromosomes occurring in pairs (homologous chromosomes) in their body cells

Results when cells lose control over their replication cycle, getting stuck in mitosis

6%

50%

(zones of lower than normal ozone concentration) have formed over the Earth’s polar areas, especially the South Pole

• Industrial countries must list their individual emissions reductions targets, and less-industrialized countries must list the actions they will take to cut emissions by specific amounts.
• All countries must accept a transparent system for monitoring their emissions.
• Poor countries will be paid to prevent deforestation.
• Wealthy nations will establish a fund (growing from 30 billion dollars per year to $100 billion per year by 2020) to help poor and vulnerable nations adapt to climate change.
• Signatory nations accept a goal of limiting global warming to 2 degrees Celsius by 2050.
• The Accord creates a Technology Mechanism to accelerate development of low-carbon technology, but supplies no details.

COP16 is the official name of the Cancún summit, which is the 16th Conference of the Parties (COP) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Fossil fuel burning and other human activities

carbon dioxide

Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide fluctuate slightly with the change of the seasons, driven primarily by seasonal plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere. Concentrations of carbon dioxide fall during the northern spring and summer as plants consume the gas, and rise during the northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant, die and decay.

• An anaerobic reaction
• Glucose converted to carbon dioxide and ethanol
• Only a net production of 2 ATP

in the cytoplasm and mitochondria, but most energytransferred to ATP in the mitochondria

• it is broken apart and the energy is
• transferred to molecules of ATP

A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that control the cell's permeability to water and dissolved substances.

A spherical organelle (structure) characteristic of eukaryotic cells. The repository of the genetic information that directs all activities of a living cell. In atoms, the central core, containing positively charged protons and (in all but hydrogen) electrically neutral neutrons.

A tubular or sausage-shaped organelle 1 to 3 micrometers long. Bounded by two membranes, mitochondria closely resemble the aerobic bacteria from which they were originally derived. As chemical furnaces of the cell, they carry out its oxidative metabolism

A cell structure composed of protein and RNA that translates RNA copies of genes into protein.

A cell-like organelle present in algae and plants that contains chlorophyll (and usually other pigments) and is the site of photosynthesis.

disorder in a closed system like the universe is continuously increasing (entropy increases)

large nonpolar molecules that are insoluble in water.

fats & oils, phospholipids, sterols and waxes

such as starch and glycogen provide a means of storing energy in the cell.

sucrose & lactose

cellulose (plants) & chitin (animals)

starch (plants) & glycogen (animals)

a predecessor of Darwin, proposed an explanation of evolution. (theory of acquired traits)

Which Element name

Less Dense

• States of matter: solid, liquid, gas & relation to temperature
• Water as a polar solvent

the monomers (building blocks) for proteins

• primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
• structure

• a. Nucleotides – the monomers (building blocks) of nucleic acids
• b. DNA and RNA basic structure as polymers of nucleotides

• a. Monosaccharides – the simplest carbohydrates and monomers (building
• blocks) for more complex carbohydrates (e.g. glucose & fructose)
• b. Disaccharides (e.g. sucrose & lactose)

organisms show variation in their structures and behaviors that are inherited

nutrients are cycled among organisms

a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product

a small RNA molecule (usually about 74-95 nucleotides) that transfers a specific active amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation.

• This process is the basis of gamete (sperm & egg) formation in sexual reproduction
• Daughter cells have half the normal number of chromosomes
• Daughter cells have one of each type of chromosome (no homologous pairs)
• Daughter cells can be different from each other (in terms of the genetic information they hold) and different from the parent cell
• Entails two division events and results in 4 cells from the original starting cell

• Return to the normal number of chromosomes and homologous pairs of chromosomes (one
• set from each parent)
• Leads to an increase in variation in organisms

higher levels of dangerous UV radiation

• Buy farmed fish that are lower on the food chain; for larger fish like salmon and sea bass, buy wild-raised. And limit consumption of fattier fish, like lake trout, or fish that are bottom dwellers, like wild catfish.
• Fillet fish to remove as much fat as possible.
• Bake or Brooil it b/c frying ittraps the toxins in the fish.

The treatment of a genetic disorder by the insertion of “normal” copies of a gene into the cells of a patient carrying “defective” copies of the gene.

• violet, indigo, blue, green,
• yellow, orange, red

• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Predictions
• Testing
• Controls
• Conclusion

Acquired Immune Difficiency Syndrome

human immunodeficiency virus

• HIV will only infect humans and some of
• the great apes
• HIV only attacks certain types of white blood cells
• -The white blood cells it attacks are the very ones that normally help the body to fight off viral infections and destroypre-cancerous cells in our body.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Higher Energy

• Sequencing (finding the exact order of CGAT nucleotides) of human DNA accomplished
• in 2000
• Some chromosomes have very few genes
• Most of the human genome is noncoding DNA