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learning
any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience
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phobias
irrational fears of specific objects or situations
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classical conditioning
a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
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unconditioned response (UR)
an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
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extinction
the gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned response tendency
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spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure
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renewal effect
if a response is extinguished ina different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place
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stimulus generalization
when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
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stimulus discrimination
occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
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higher-order conditioning
in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus
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operant conditioning
a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
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law of effect
if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the associated between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
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reinforcement
occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
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Operant chamber (skinner box)
small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled
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reinforcement contingencies
the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
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cumulative recorder
this creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a skinner box as a function of time.
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primary reinforcers
events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
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secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers
events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers
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shaping
consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
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resistance to extinction
occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
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discriminative stimuli
cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response
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schedule of reinforcement
determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
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continuous reinforcement
occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced
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intermittent (or partial) reinforcement
occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
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fixed ratio schedule
the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of non reinforced responses
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variable ration schedule
the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses
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fixed interval schedule
the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
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variable interval schedule
the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed
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positive reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
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negative reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
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escape learning
an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
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avoidance learning
an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
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punishment
this occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
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preparedness
involves species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others
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latent learning
learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs
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observational learning
occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
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behavior modification
a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning
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cognition
refers broadly to mental processes of thinking
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language
this consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages
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phonemes
the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually
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morphemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language
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semantics
the area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations
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syntax
a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences
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fast mapping
the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure
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overextension
this occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is mean to
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under extension
this occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to
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telegraphic speech
this consists mainly of content words and other less critical words are omitted
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mean length utterance
the average length of youngsters' spoken statements
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over regularizations
these occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply
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bilingualism
the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules
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linguistic relativity
the hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thought
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chromosomes
strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information
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zygote
a single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg
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genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission
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homozygous condition
two genes in a specific pair are the same
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heterozygous condition
two genes in a specific pair are different
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dominant gene
a gene that is expressed when paired genes are different
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recessive gene
a gene that is masked when paired genes are different
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genotype
a person's genetic makeup
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phenotype
the ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics
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polygenic traits
characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes
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family studies
researches asses hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait
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twin studies
researchers asses hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to trait
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identical twins
emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons
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fraternal twins
result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes
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adoption studies
assess heredity influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents
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genetic mapping
the process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes
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fitness
the reproductive success of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population
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development
the sequence of age-related changed that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
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prenatal period
extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy
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germinal stage
the first phase of prenatal development, the first 2 weeks after conception
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placenta
a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out the mother
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embryonic stage
the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 weeks to the end of the 2nd month
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fetal stage
the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months through birth
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the age of viability
the age at which a baby can survive in the even of a premature birth
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fetal alcohol syndrome
a collection of congenital problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy
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motor development
refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities
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the cephalocaudal trend
the head-to-foot direction of motor development
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the proximodistal trend
the center-outward direction of motor development
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maturation
development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint
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developmental norms
typical age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities
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temperament
characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity
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longitudinal design
observing one group of participants repeatedly over time
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cohort effects
when differences between age groups are due to the groups growing up in different time periods
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attachments
the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers
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separation anxiety
emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment
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stage
a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established
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cognitive development
refers to transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
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object permanence
when a child recognizes that objects out of view continue to exist
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conservation
the term for awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance
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centration
the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects
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irreversibility
inability to envision reversing an action
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egocentrism
limited ability to share another person's viewpoint
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zone of proximal development
the gap between what a learner can accomplish alone and what he or she can achieve with guidance from ore skilled partners
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fluid intelligence
basic reasoning abilities, memory capacity, and speed of information processing
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crystalized intelligence
the ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in problem solving
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socialization
acquisition of the norms and behaviors expected of people in a particular society
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medical model
proposes that it is useful to think of abnormal behavior as a disease
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etiology
apparent causation and developmental history of an illness
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epidemiology
study of the distribution of mental or physical disorders in a population
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prevalence
percentage of a population that exhibit a disorder during a specified time period
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anxiety disorders
a class of disorders marked by feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety
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generalized anxiety disorder
marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat
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phobic disorder
marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object of situation that presents no realistic danger
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panic disorder
recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually occur suddenly and unexpectedly
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agoraphobia
a fear of going out to public places
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somatoform disorders
physical ailments that cannot be fully explained by organic conditions and are largely due to psychological factors
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somatization disorder
a history of diverse physical complaints that appear to be psychological in origin
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conversion disorder
a significant loss of physical function usually in a single organ system
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dissociate disorders
a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity
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dissociative amnesia
a sudden memory loss for important personal information that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting
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dissociative fugue
people lose their memory for their entire lives along with their sense of personal identity
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dissociative identity disorder
coexistance of one person of two or more largely complete and usually different personalities
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mood disorders
a class of disorders marked by emotional disturbances of varied kinds that may spill over to disrupt physical, perceptual,social and thought processes
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major depressive disorder
people show persistent feelings of sadness and despair
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dysthymic disorder
chronic depression
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bipolar disorder
characterized by the experience of one or more manic episodes as well as periods of depression
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cyclothymic disorder
when someone exhibit chronic but relatively mild symptoms of bipolar disturbance
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schizophrenic disorders
a class of disorders marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and deterioration of adaptive behavior
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delusions
false beliefs that are maintained even though they clearly are out of touch with reality
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paranoid schizophrenia
dominated by delusions of persecution
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catatonic schizophrenia
marked by striking motor disturbances
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disorganized schizophrenia
severe deterioration of adaptive behavior is seen
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undifferentiated schizophrenia
idiosyncratic mixtures of schizophrenic symptoms
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expressed emotion
the degree to which a relative of a patient displays highly critical or emotionally over-involved attitudes towards the patient
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personality disorders
a class of disorders marked by extreme, inflexible personality traits that cause subjective distress or impaired social and occupational functioning
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insight therapies
verbal interactions intended to enhance client's self-knowledge and thus promote healthy changes in personality and behavior
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psychoanalysis
an insight therapy that emphasize the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses through techniques such as free association and transference
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free-association
clients spontaneously express their thoughts and feelings exactly as they occur, with as little censorship as possible
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dream analysis
the therapist interprets the symbolic meaning of the client's dreams
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interpretation
the therapist's attempts to explain the inner significance of the client's thoughts, feelings, memories, and behaviors
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transference
this occurs when clients unconsciously start relating to their therapist in ways that mimic critical relationships in their lives
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systematic desensitization
a behavior therapy used to reduce phobic clients' anxiety responses through counterconditioning
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aversion therapy
behavior therapy in which an aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits an undesirable response
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cognitive therapy
specific strategies to crrect habitual thinking errors that underlie various types of disorders
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