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What kind of lymphocytes would you find in the thymus?
T-lymphocytes
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What is the largest organ in the body?
Diffuse lymphoid tissue
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Name the APCs of the lymphoid system
- 1. Macrophages
- 2. Dendritic cells
- 3. Langerhan cells
- 4. M cells
- 5. B cells
- 6. Follicular dendritic cells
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What type of lymphocytes predominate in the blood?
- T lymphocytes
- (B lymphoctyes are found in blood too, but most are T-lymphocytes)
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In which areas of the lymphoid system can you find macrophages?
- Thymus
- Bone marrow
- Spleen
- Lymph nodes
- Tonsils
- (NOT IN BLOOD)
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What kind of lymphocytes does the bone marrow produce?
B lymphocytes and NK cells
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Name each type of cell involved in the immune system
- 1. Lymphocytes
- 2. Supporting cells
- 3. Antigen-presenting cells
- 4. Blood granulocytes
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What blood granulocytes are involved in the immune response?
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
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What type of immune response is a cytotoxic T-cell involved in?
Adaptive immune response
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What type of immune response is an NK cell involved in?
Innate immune response
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What is the main function of a B lymphocyte?
- Carries IgM membrane receptors
- Differentiates into plasma cells when activated by antigens
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What is the main function of a memory B-lymphocyte?
Activated B cell that is primed to responed more readily to subsequent exposure to the same antigen
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What is the main function of a T-cytotoxic lymphocyte?
- Carries TCRs
- Recognizes MHC I
- Produces Perforins and other proteins that kill other cells
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What is the main function of a T-helper lymphocyte?
- Carries TCR
- Stimulates activation of other T cells and B cells
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What are the main functions of T-memory lymphocytes?
- Carries TCRs
- Primed to respond more readily to subsequent exposure to same antigen
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What are the main functions of NK cells?
- Lacks T and B cell receptors
- Attacks virus infected cells and tumor cells without previous exposure
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What are gamma/ delta T-lymphocytes and where are they found?
- They have no CD4 or CD8 markers
- They develop in Thymus and migrate to various epithelial tissues
- They do not recirculate between blood and lymphatic organs
- Function as the first line of defense
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Where are CD3 markers found?
On the surface of all T-cells
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What are the functions of CD3 cells?
Forms complex with TCR and activates T cell
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Where are CD4 markers found?
The cell surface of T-helper cells
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What is the target cell of CD4 markers?
MHC II on antigen presenting cells
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What are the functions of CD 4 markers?
Activates T-helper cells
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Where are CD8 markers found?
The cell surface of cytotoxic T-helper cells and Suppressor T cells
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What is the target cell of CD8 markers?
MHC I on antigen presenting cells
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What are the functions of CD8 markers?
activates cytotoxic T-cells
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Where are CD28 markers found?
The cell surface of T-helper cells
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What is the target cell of CD28 markers?
B7 on antigen presenting cells
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What are the functions of CD28 markers?
Assists in activation of T-helper cells
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Where are CD40 markers found?
The cell surface of B-cells
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What are the target cells of CD40 markers?
CD40 receptor molecules on activated helper T-cells
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What are the functions of CD40 markers?
Permits T helper cell to activate B cell to proliferate into B memory cells and plasma cells
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Where are TCRs located?
The surface of T-lymphocytes
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What do TCRs do?
They interact with CD markers and when they bind to MHC they trigger a cascade of events
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What do MHC I molecules do?
- On all cells in body
- Decided whether something is self or non-self
- present peptides for recognition by CD8+ T cells
- Act as targets for cellular elimination
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What do MHC II cells do?
- Expressed only on antigen presenting cells
- (Macrophages, dendritic cells, reticular cells)
- Present foreign peptides to CD4+ lymphocytes
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N terminus of an immunoglobin contains
- antigen-binding region
- Fab domain
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C terminud of an immunoglobin contains
- cell-binding domains
- Fc domain
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Location of IgAs
- In body secretions and reproductive system of females
- Bound to B-cells
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Function of IgAs
- Defense against proliferation of microorganisms
- Helps defend against microbes
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Location of IgDs
B-cells (on the surface of mature B-lymphocytes)
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Function of IgDs
Act as antigen receptors (together with IgMs)
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Location of IgE
On mast cells and basophils
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Function of IgEs
- Stimulates mast cells to release histamine, heparin, leukotrienes, etc
- Responsible for anaphaletic hyperactivity
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Location of IgGs
- Does not have to be bound to a cell
- If it is bound to a cell it is bound to:
- Macrophage, B-cell, NK cell, neutrophil, eosinophil
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Functions of IgG
- Secondary immune response
- Oponisizing pathogens
- Activate NK cells
- Crosses the placental barrier
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Location of IgM
- Does not have to be bound
- B-cells (when bound)
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Functions of IgM
- Most efficient in binding antigens
- (decavalent instead of bivalent when in free solution)
- Activates macrophages
- Antigen receptor of B-lymphocytes
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Binding of IgM
- When free in solution it is pentemeric
- When bound to a membrane it is dimeric
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How long does the primary adaptive response take?
Take about 2 weeks to form antibodies from the time the antigen is introduced
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How long does the secondary adaptive response take?
Takes about 7-10 days for the body to be able to fight off the antigen or bacterial infection
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What Immunoglobin is most commonly found in blood?
IgG
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What does the humoral response of the adaptive immune system do?
Produces soluable Immunoglobins and memory cells
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What does the cell-mediated response of the adaptive immune system involve?
Cytotoxic targeting and memory cells
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What proteins are involved in B-lymphocyte activation?
- TCRs
- MHC II
- CD 3, CD4 and CD40 markers
- ILs 2, 4, 5 and 6
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What proteins are involved in T-lymphocyte activation?
- TCR
- MHC I
- CD 3 CD4 and CD8
- IL 2
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Which lymphatic organs have a cortex and a medulla?
Thymus and Lymph nodes
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Which lymphatic organs have lymphoid nodules?
- Peyer's patches
- Lymph nodes
- Tonsils
- Spleen
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Which lymphatic organs have a capsule?
- Thymus
- Lymph nodes
- Spleen
- Tonsil (partial capsule)
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Which lymphatic organs have cords and sinuses?
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What lymphatic organs have high endothelial veins?
- Peyer's patches
- Tonsils and Lymph nodes
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What is a unique characteristic of the thymus?
Hassal's corpuscules
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What is a unique characteristic of Peyer's patches?
located only in the wall of the ileum
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What are unique characteristics of lymph nodes?
cortical nodules and subscapular sinus
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What are unique characteristics of the spleen?
Central artieries and red pulp
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What type of lymphocytes are found in germinal centers?
B-lymphocytes
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What happens in germinal centers?
- Clonal proliferation of activated B lymphocytes
- They will leave GC to form plasma cells elsewhere
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What are M cells?
Follicular associtated epithelium
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Two items you will NOT find in the thymus
- B lymphocytes
- Germinal centers
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Where does T-cell education and selection occur?
In the cortex of the thymus
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What provides the structural meshwork of the thymus?
Epthelial reticular cells
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What do epithelial reticular cells do?
- Expose MHCs to differentiating T-cells
- Help form the blood-thymus barrier
- Lobulate the tissue (along with the CT septa [Se]).
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What eliminates T-cells that do not "pass insepection"?
Macrophages
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What are Hassal's corpuscules?
Whorls of epithelial reticular cells
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Where are Hassal's corpuscle's located?
In the medulla of the thymus
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What kind of epithelium would you find on the apical side of a tonsil?
stratified squamous
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Where are germinal centers in the lymph node found?
Outer cortex
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What kind of fibers provide structural support of the lymphoid organs?
- Reticular fibers
- Type III collagen
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Where do lymphocytes re-enter the lymphatic efferent system?
medullary cords
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What are high endothelial venules?
Post capillary venules in lymph nodes that facillitate extravasation of lymphocytes from the blood to the parenchyma of the lymph node
Cuboidal epithelium
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What proteins mediate lymphocyte passage in HEVs?
selectins
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Where are venous sinuses?
In the red pulp of the spleen
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What does the pineal gland secrete?
melatonin
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What does the parathyroid gland secrete?
Parathyroid hormone
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What do the pancreatic islets secrete?
Insulin and glucagon
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What does the hypothalmus produce?
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What does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secrete?
- ACTCH
- Follicle stimulationf Hormone (FSH)
- Thyroid Stimulationg Hormone (TSH)
- Prolactin (PRL)
- Growth Hormone (GH)
- Lutenizing Hormone (LH)
- MSH
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What does the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secrete?
RELEASE of oxytocin and ADH
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What does the thyroid gland secrete?
- Thyroxine (T4)
- Triiodothyronine (T3)
- Calcitonin (CT)
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What does the suprarenal medulla secrete?
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
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What does the suprarenal cortex secrete?
- Cortisol
- Corticosterone
- Aldosterone
- Androgens
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What are the three molecular types hormones can come in?
- Amino acid derivatives
- Peptide hormones
- Lipid derivatives:
- steroids and eicosanoids
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What are hormones that are derivatives of tyrosine?
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What are catecholamines?
- Derivatives of tyrosine (amino acid hormones)
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine
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What hormone is a derivative of tryptophan?
Melatonin
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What hormones are amino acid derivatives?
- Melatonin
- Thyroxine
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine
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What hormones are glycoproteins?
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What hormones are short polypeptides or small proteins?
- ADH, Oxytocin
- ACTH, GH, PRL, MSH
- Insulin, glucagon
- PTH
- Calcitonin
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What are the categories of peptide hormones?
Glycoproteins, small proteins and polypeptides
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What are the types of lipid hormones?
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What are eicosanoids?
Lipid derivatives of arachidonic acid
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What hormones are steroid hormones?
- Androgens
- Estrogens
- Progestins
- Mineralcorticoids
- Glucocorticoids
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What is the principal of amplification?
The ability of a response to trigger many second messengers to amplify the effect of a hormone
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How are hormones and cytoplasmic second messengers linked?
G-proteins
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What are G-proteins
Membrane bound enzyme complex that binds GTP
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What are three types of endorcrine system reflexes?
- 1. Humoral stimuli
- 2. Hormonal stimuli
- 3. Neural stimuli
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What does a humoral stimuli do?
Changes the content of the extracellular fluid
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What does a hormonal stimuli mean?
The right hormone arrives on the scene
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What is a neural stimuli?
The right neurotransmitter shows up at correct sites
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What organs use a simple endocrine reflex system?
Heart, pancreas, parathyroid glands and digestive tract
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What is a simple endocrine reflex?
Involves only one hormone and endocrine cells respond directly to changes in the extracellular fluid
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What are the functions of the hypothalmus?
- 1. Secrete regulatory hormones to control adenohypophysis
- 2. Production of ADH and oxytocin
- 3. Control of sympathetic output to suprarenal medulla
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What makes the hypothalmo-hypopohysial structurally different from the regular blood system?
It goes from capillaries to veins to capillaries for hormonal release
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What does the hypothalmohypophysial portal system accomplish?
Gets the releasing hormones to their target without dilution
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What does growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) do?
Stimulates secretion and gene expression of GH by somatotropes
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What does somatostatin do?
Inhibits secretion of GH by somatotropes
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What does dopamine do?
inhibits secretion of PRL by lactotropes
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What does corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) do?
- Stimulates secretion of ACTH by corticotropes
- Stimulates gene expression for POMC in corticotropes
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What does gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) do?
Stimulates secretion of LH and FSH by gonadotropes
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What does thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) do?
- Stimulates secretion and gene expression of TSH by thyrotropes
- Stimulates secretion and synthesis of PRL
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ADH
- Antidiruetic hormone
- Synthesized by the hypthalmus
- Released by the neurohypohysis
- Target cell are the kidneys
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What does the hypothalmohyppophysial tract do/ contain?
- Transports oxytocin and ADH to the pars nervosa
- contains unmyelinated axons of neurosecretory cells
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What are Herring bodies?
Granules in the pars nervosa that contain neurosecretory accumulations
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What are the supporting cells of the pars nervosa?
Pituicytes
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What are the two types of cells in the parathyroid gland?
Chief cells and oxyphil cells
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What do chief glands produce?
Parathyroid hormone
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What does parathyroid hormone do?
Raises blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone
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What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex?
- 1. Zona glomerulosa
- 2. Zona fasciculata
- 3. Zona reticularis
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What is produced in the zona glomerulosa?
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
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What is produced in the zona fasciculata?
- Glucocorticoids
- (cortisol and corticosterone)
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What is produced in the zona reticularis?
weak androgens
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What stimulates hormone production of the adrenal cortex?
ACTH
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What are the two types of cells found in the adrenal medulla?
- 1. Chromaffin cells
- 2. Sympathetic ganglion
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What do Chromaffin cells do?
Synthesize, store and secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
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What stimulates the release of catecholamines?
Intense emotional stimuli and is mediated by preganglionic sympathetic fibers
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What kind of epithelium is germinal epithelium covering the ovaries?
simple cuboidal epithelium
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Primordial follicles are composed of...
a primary oocyte with a single layer of flat follicular cells
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Primary follicles are composed of...
Primary oocyte with surrounding zona pellucida
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Multilayer follicular cells contain...
several layers of follicular cells known as granulosa cells and a theca layer
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Graffian follicle contains
antrum that is completely filled with liquor folliculi and cumulus oophorus
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Graffian follicles secretes...
Inhibin to shut off other developing follicles
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Cumulus oophorus
- In a graffian follicle
- Small mound of granulosa cells that project into the antrum
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Theca interna cells manufacture...
androgens which are transferred to granulosa cells and converted to estrogen
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Where are androgens secreted by the theca interna turned into estrogen?
granulosa cells
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What is the remnant of the corpus luteum called?
Corpus albicans
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The corpus luteum produces
progesterone
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What does progesterone do?
- Promotes the development of endometrium
- Inhibits the release of LH by supressing the LHRH
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What does Gonadotropin releasing hormone do?
Stimulates secretion of LH and FSH
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What does FSH do?
Stimulates the growth and development of seconday ovarian follicles and the appearence
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LH surge does what?
- promotes formation of corpus luteum
- triggers ovulation of seconday oocyte
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In the absense of pregnancy which hormones are not present?
- HCG and LH
- Corpus luteum will atrophy
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