Physiology Final Exam

asexual reproduction

gland at the beginning of penis

sponge-like gland that holds the ejaculatory duct

• "nurse cells" - darker with large nucleus inside the testes
• regulate sperm

epididymis

produce androgens (testosterone) in the testes

Dartos & Cremaster muscles

joins urethra via ejaculatory duct in prostate gland

• innervation to penis --> artery/arteriole dilation --> increased blood volume in erctile tissue --> physical compression of veins --> erection
• PARASYMPATHETIC

higher brain centers - descending autonomic pathways - parasympathetic stimulated - penile arterioles vasodilate - erection

tactile stimuli - mechonoreceptor - sensory neuron - spinal cord - ascending sensory pathway - higher brain centers

two reproductive glands in males next to urinary bladder

production of seminal fluied and its constituents

directly inside the ovary

develop gamete in females

produce androgen, converted to estrogen by granulosa cells

most inside part of uterus

inside layer of uterus

outside most layer of uterus

secrete mucus

• pubic mound
• covers pubic bone with adipose tissue

outer skin fold

inner skin fold

region enclosed by labia minora

• on either side of opening to vagina
• lubrication

hole to enter the vagina

• vey tip of sperm
• storage
• contains enzymes

middle b/w head and tail of sperm

tubes in tail of sperm

Hypothalamus --> GnRH secretion --> anteriro pituitary --> FSH secretion (OR) LH secretion

• FSH secretion --> Sertoli cells --> inhibin secretion (OR) spermatogenisis
• inhibin secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary

• LH secretion --> Leydig cells --> testosterone secretion --> Sertoli cells (OR) general cirulation
• testosterone secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary & hypothalamus

• Sympathetic NS
• 3 mL ~ 100 million sperm/mL

many little circles

outer layer of inner circle

outer circle around oocyte

outer layer of entire cell

Graafin follicle

• estrogen
• progesterone

• FSH secretion --> Granulosa cells --> inhibin secretion (OR) oogenesis and follicular development
• inhibin secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary

• LH secretion --> Theca cells --> androgen secretion --> granulosa cells --> enzymatic modification of androgens --> estrogen secretion --> Granulosa cells (OR) general circulation
• Estrogen secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary and Hypothalamus

initial onset of menstruation ~ age 12

• Proliferative phase: regrowth of endometrial tissue in prep for potential pregnancy - in response to estrogen
• LH goes up at end of phase before ovulation
• Estrogen goes up before ovulation

• Secretory phase: uterine secretions of fluids rich in glycogen
• late secretory phase - cervical plug
• maintanance by estrogen and progesterone
• glycogen in case embryo gets planted
• body temp goes up due to progesterone

• GnRH --> FSH & LH --> granulosa cells & thecal cells --> estrogens & androgens
• estrogens = (+) feedback to granulosa cells & (-) feedback to FSH & LH & GnRH

• GnRH --> FSH & LH --> granulosa cells and thecal cells --> inhibin, high estrogen & small progesterone, androgens
• inhibin = (-) feedback to FSH
• high estrogen = (+) feedback to GnRH
• progesterone = (+) feedback to LH & GnRH

• GnRH --> FSH(down) & LH(down) --> Corpus Luteum --> secretes high estrogen, high progesteron, high inhibin
• hormones = (-) feedback to GnRH, FSH, LH

• GnRH tonic secretion --> FSH & LH (both go up) --> new follicles begin to develop & corpus luteum dies --> estrogen & progesterone (both go down)
• back to beginning

• sperm capacitiaton
• acrosomal reaction - enzymes disolve
• cortical & zona reactions - keep rest of sperm out of egg

• placenta keeps corpus luteum from degenerating during first 2 months by secreting hCG (begins during blastocyst stage)
• corpus luteum degenerates, placenta begins producing progesterone, estrogen, inhibin

layer directly outside of amniotic fluid

• fetus drops low in uterus --> cervical stretch
• - (+) feedback to oxytocin from posterior pituitary
• - (+) feedback to uterine contractions
• -- contractions (+) feedback to cervical stretch
• Oxytocin from posterior pituitary --> postaglandins from uterine wall
• - (+) feedback to uterine contractions
• - oxytocin (+) feedback to contractions

• low volume, low fat, low Ca++
• high protein, carbs
• maternal antibodies
• stimulate GI tract

• high fat, high lactose, high Ca++
• stimulates gut bacteria colonization & proliferation

• prevent the pituitary glands release of hormones that stimulate ovulation
• estrogens, progestins -- inhibit GnRH -- no FSH
• progestins - thicken cervical mucus and prevent sperm movement

clit or glans penis

labia minora, opening of vagina and utethra OR shaft of penis

Labia majora OR shaft of penis and scrotum

ovary OR regresses

regresses OR testis

regresses (testosterone absent) OR epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vessicle (testosterone present)

fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, upper 1/3 of vagina (AMH absent) OR regresses (AMH present)

under the liver

under the stomach

• most inside layer of small intestine with spike like things
• absorption secretory, goblet cells, GI tract epithelial somatic stem cells

in sm intestine, make mucus

in sm intestine, become other mucosa cells, common to develop cancer

• directly inside mucosa in sm intestine
• connective tissue, provides elasticity, region of large blood vessels & enteric NS

• blue layer directly ouside the longitudinal muscle in sm intestine
• structural support, lubrication

• bicarbonate: make more basic
• amylase, lypase: breakdown fat/starch
• immune function: lyosye (breakdown cell walls), IgA

smooth muscle

skeletal muscle

release chyme into small intestine

• 1st part of large intestine
• chyme mixed w/ pancreatic secretions and bile
• contains digestic enzymes and bicarbonate

• 2nd part of lg intestine
• digestion/absorption usually done early here

• 3rd part of the lg intestine
• transport to colon

regulates chyme flow from sm intestine to lg intestine

smooth muscle closest to rectum

skeletal muscle closest to anus

unabsorbed solutes

pathogen induced

secretes pancreatic juice into sm intestine

• bile secretion
• metabolism of nutrients
• removal of old RBC and bacteria from blood
• breakdown of toxins
• plasma protein synthesis
• activation/breakdown of hormones

1st capillary bed picks up absorbed nutrients from intestines --> hepatic portal vein --> 2nd bed in liver for filtration leaves portal system via hepatic vein --> inferior vena cava

• source = stomach
• stimulus = food presense
• target = stomach
• function = stimulates gastric acid release

• source = sm intestine
• stimulus = acidificaiton (enzyme)
• target = pancreas & stomach
• Function = stimulates bicarbonate, inhibits gastric acid

• source = stomach
• stimulus = ?
• target = hypothalamus
• function = increases hunger

• Organism in homeostasis --> External changes (OR) Internal changes --> internal change results in loss of homeostasis --> organism attempts to compensate --> compensation fails (OR) succeeds --> leads to illness or disease (OR) wellness
• Internal changes: stressor
• Attempting to compensate: The Stress Response

• fight or flight
• sympathetic NS
• epinephrine and norepinephrine
• heart rate, O2 intake, blood flow, blood glucose INCREASE

• General Adaption Syndrome
• alarm reaction
• resistance
• exhaustion - continued exposure to stress hormones

• acts within mins – hrs (releasing energy)
• HPA pathway for cortisol secretion:
• Stress --> CRH (from hypothalamus) --> ACTH (from anterior pituitary) --> Cortisol (from adrenal cortex) -->
• --**Immune system --> funtion suppressed
• --Liver --> gluconeogenesis
• --Muscle --> protein catabolism
• --Adipose tissue --> lipolysis (sustained energy availability)

• Immunoredistribution (by Epi/NE) --> leukocytes from blood to tissue/skin
• Enhanced inflammatory response
• No new leukocytes produced
• Lymphocytes actively suppressed – metabolically costly

• Perception
• Predictability (more prediction = less stress)
• Sense of Control (more control = lower stress)
• Outlet for frustration/comfort