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Parthenogenis
asexual reproduction
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Bulbouethral gland:
gland at the beginning of penis
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prostate gland:
sponge-like gland that holds the ejaculatory duct
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Sertoli cells
- "nurse cells" - darker with large nucleus inside the testes
- regulate sperm
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Sperm is finalized where?
epididymis
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Leydig cells:
produce androgens (testosterone) in the testes
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muscles that release and pull the testes closere and farther from the body:
Dartos & Cremaster muscles
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vas deferens:
joins urethra via ejaculatory duct in prostate gland
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How an erection occurs:
- innervation to penis --> artery/arteriole dilation --> increased blood volume in erctile tissue --> physical compression of veins --> erection
- PARASYMPATHETIC
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Erection Reflex (from brain directly):
higher brain centers - descending autonomic pathways - parasympathetic stimulated - penile arterioles vasodilate - erection
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Erection Reflex (from touching):
tactile stimuli - mechonoreceptor - sensory neuron - spinal cord - ascending sensory pathway - higher brain centers
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Seminal vessicle:
two reproductive glands in males next to urinary bladder
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What do reproductive glands do?
production of seminal fluied and its constituents
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Stroma:
directly inside the ovary
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Granulosa cells:
develop gamete in females
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Theca cells:
produce androgen, converted to estrogen by granulosa cells
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Endometrium
most inside part of uterus
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myometrium
inside layer of uterus
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outer connective tissue
outside most layer of uterus
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what do endocervical gland do?
secrete mucus
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mon pubis:
- pubic mound
- covers pubic bone with adipose tissue
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Labia majora
outer skin fold
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labia minora
inner skin fold
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vestibule
region enclosed by labia minora
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vestibular glands
- on either side of opening to vagina
- lubrication
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hymen
hole to enter the vagina
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Acrosome
- vey tip of sperm
- storage
- contains enzymes
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centrioles
middle b/w head and tail of sperm
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microtubules
tubes in tail of sperm
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Hormonal Regulation:
Hypothalamus --> GnRH secretion --> anteriro pituitary --> FSH secretion (OR) LH secretion
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FSH secretion in males:
- FSH secretion --> Sertoli cells --> inhibin secretion (OR) spermatogenisis
- inhibin secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary
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LH secretion in males:
- LH secretion --> Leydig cells --> testosterone secretion --> Sertoli cells (OR) general cirulation
- testosterone secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary & hypothalamus
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What NS does an orgasm use?
- Sympathetic NS
- 3 mL ~ 100 million sperm/mL
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Primordial follicle:
many little circles
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Zona pelucida
outer layer of inner circle
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Granulosa cells in follicle:
outer circle around oocyte
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Theca cells in follicle
outer layer of entire cell
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follicle that only one lives past this point?
Graafin follicle
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What hormones does the Corpus Luteum secrete?
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FSH secretion in female:
- FSH secretion --> Granulosa cells --> inhibin secretion (OR) oogenesis and follicular development
- inhibin secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary
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LH secretion in female:
- LH secretion --> Theca cells --> androgen secretion --> granulosa cells --> enzymatic modification of androgens --> estrogen secretion --> Granulosa cells (OR) general circulation
- Estrogen secretion = (-) feedback to anterior pituitary and Hypothalamus
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Menarche
initial onset of menstruation ~ age 12
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Follicular phase:
- Proliferative phase: regrowth of endometrial tissue in prep for potential pregnancy - in response to estrogen
- LH goes up at end of phase before ovulation
- Estrogen goes up before ovulation
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Luteal Phase:
- Secretory phase: uterine secretions of fluids rich in glycogen
- late secretory phase - cervical plug
- maintanance by estrogen and progesterone
- glycogen in case embryo gets planted
- body temp goes up due to progesterone
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Early to mid-follicular stage:
- GnRH --> FSH & LH --> granulosa cells & thecal cells --> estrogens & androgens
- estrogens = (+) feedback to granulosa cells & (-) feedback to FSH & LH & GnRH
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Late follicular phase & ovulation:
- GnRH --> FSH & LH --> granulosa cells and thecal cells --> inhibin, high estrogen & small progesterone, androgens
- inhibin = (-) feedback to FSH
- high estrogen = (+) feedback to GnRH
- progesterone = (+) feedback to LH & GnRH
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Early to mid-luteal phase:
- GnRH --> FSH(down) & LH(down) --> Corpus Luteum --> secretes high estrogen, high progesteron, high inhibin
- hormones = (-) feedback to GnRH, FSH, LH
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Late luteal phase:
- GnRH tonic secretion --> FSH & LH (both go up) --> new follicles begin to develop & corpus luteum dies --> estrogen & progesterone (both go down)
- back to beginning
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Fertilization:
- sperm capacitiaton
- acrosomal reaction - enzymes disolve
- cortical & zona reactions - keep rest of sperm out of egg
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How to prevent menstration?
- placenta keeps corpus luteum from degenerating during first 2 months by secreting hCG (begins during blastocyst stage)
- corpus luteum degenerates, placenta begins producing progesterone, estrogen, inhibin
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Chorion:
layer directly outside of amniotic fluid
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How does birth work?
- fetus drops low in uterus --> cervical stretch
- - (+) feedback to oxytocin from posterior pituitary
- - (+) feedback to uterine contractions
- -- contractions (+) feedback to cervical stretch
- Oxytocin from posterior pituitary --> postaglandins from uterine wall
- - (+) feedback to uterine contractions
- - oxytocin (+) feedback to contractions
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Colostrum:
- low volume, low fat, low Ca++
- high protein, carbs
- maternal antibodies
- stimulate GI tract
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Milk:
- high fat, high lactose, high Ca++
- stimulates gut bacteria colonization & proliferation
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Birth control:
- prevent the pituitary glands release of hormones that stimulate ovulation
- estrogens, progestins -- inhibit GnRH -- no FSH
- progestins - thicken cervical mucus and prevent sperm movement
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Genital tubercle turns into:
clit or glans penis
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Urethral folds and groove turn into:
labia minora, opening of vagina and utethra OR shaft of penis
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Labioscrotal swellings turn into:
Labia majora OR shaft of penis and scrotum
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Gonad (cortex) turns into:
ovary OR regresses
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Gonad (medulla) turns into:
regresses OR testis
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Wolffian duct turns into:
regresses (testosterone absent) OR epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vessicle (testosterone present)
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Mullerian duct turns into:
fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, upper 1/3 of vagina (AMH absent) OR regresses (AMH present)
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Gallbladder
under the liver
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Pancreas
under the stomach
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Mucosa
- most inside layer of small intestine with spike like things
- absorption secretory, goblet cells, GI tract epithelial somatic stem cells
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goblet cells:
in sm intestine, make mucus
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Stem cells:
in sm intestine, become other mucosa cells, common to develop cancer
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Submucosa:
- directly inside mucosa in sm intestine
- connective tissue, provides elasticity, region of large blood vessels & enteric NS
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Serosa:
- blue layer directly ouside the longitudinal muscle in sm intestine
- structural support, lubrication
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Saliva contains:
- bicarbonate: make more basic
- amylase, lypase: breakdown fat/starch
- immune function: lyosye (breakdown cell walls), IgA
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Lower esophageal sphincter
smooth muscle
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upper esophageal sphincter
skeletal muscle
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pyloric sphincter
release chyme into small intestine
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Duodenum
- 1st part of large intestine
- chyme mixed w/ pancreatic secretions and bile
- contains digestic enzymes and bicarbonate
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Jejunum
- 2nd part of lg intestine
- digestion/absorption usually done early here
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Ileum
- 3rd part of the lg intestine
- transport to colon
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Ileocecal sphincter
regulates chyme flow from sm intestine to lg intestine
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Internal anal sphincter
smooth muscle closest to rectum
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external anal sphincter
skeletal muscle closest to anus
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osmotic diarrhea
unabsorbed solutes
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secretory diarrhea
pathogen induced
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exocrine
secretes pancreatic juice into sm intestine
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liver function:
- bile secretion
- metabolism of nutrients
- removal of old RBC and bacteria from blood
- breakdown of toxins
- plasma protein synthesis
- activation/breakdown of hormones
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Hepatic Portal System:
1st capillary bed picks up absorbed nutrients from intestines --> hepatic portal vein --> 2nd bed in liver for filtration leaves portal system via hepatic vein --> inferior vena cava
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Gastrin:
- source = stomach
- stimulus = food presense
- target = stomach
- function = stimulates gastric acid release
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Secretin:
- source = sm intestine
- stimulus = acidificaiton (enzyme)
- target = pancreas & stomach
- Function = stimulates bicarbonate, inhibits gastric acid
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Ghrelin
- source = stomach
- stimulus = ?
- target = hypothalamus
- function = increases hunger
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Homeostasis
- Organism in homeostasis --> External changes (OR) Internal changes --> internal change results in loss of homeostasis --> organism attempts to compensate --> compensation fails (OR) succeeds --> leads to illness or disease (OR) wellness
- Internal changes: stressor
- Attempting to compensate: The Stress Response
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Step 1 of stress:
- fight or flight
- sympathetic NS
- epinephrine and norepinephrine
- heart rate, O2 intake, blood flow, blood glucose INCREASE
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Step 2 of stress:
- General Adaption Syndrome
- alarm reaction
- resistance
- exhaustion - continued exposure to stress hormones
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Cortisol release:
- acts within mins – hrs (releasing energy)
- HPA pathway for cortisol secretion:
- Stress --> CRH (from hypothalamus) --> ACTH (from anterior pituitary) --> Cortisol (from adrenal cortex) -->
- --**Immune system --> funtion suppressed
- --Liver --> gluconeogenesis
- --Muscle --> protein catabolism
- --Adipose tissue --> lipolysis (sustained energy availability)
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Immune Function:
- Immunoredistribution (by Epi/NE) --> leukocytes from blood to tissue/skin
- Enhanced inflammatory response
- No new leukocytes produced
- Lymphocytes actively suppressed – metabolically costly
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Psychosocial stress depends on:
- Perception
- Predictability (more prediction = less stress)
- Sense of Control (more control = lower stress)
- Outlet for frustration/comfort
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