Biology Final.txt

maintaining a living system w/i an acceptable range.

all cells come from pre-existing cells

do not have a mitochondria or a nucleus

Kingdom, phylum ,class, order, family, genus, species

review accumulated scientific data

Different between a null and alternative hypothesis

• Null- no
• difference

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable

• Hydrogen,
• Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon

how many electrons you need to maintain stability

how many electrons you have in your outer shell

an atom need 8 electrons in its outer shell to maintain stability

electrons are shared

electrons are transferred

bonds between molecules

differ in the number of neutrons

two of the same substances stick to themselves

• two
• different substances stick to each other

• level of difficulty involved in breaking or stretching the
• surface of a liquid

• how
• much energy it takes to change from liquid to gas

amount of heat you need to change the temperature of one gram of something

• substances
• that minimize changes in hydronium or hydroxide

• hydroxyl= OH
• Carbonyl= CO
• Carboxyl= COOH
• Amino= NH2
• Sulfhydryl= SH
• Phosphate= PO4
• Methyl= CH₃

• variations around an asymetric carbon
• non-superimposable mirror images
• L-Dopa is effective against Parkinson's while it's enantiomer D-Dopa is biologically inactive

variations around a double bond

variations in arrangement

same molecular formula but different structure

Structural

Geometric

Enantiomer

• breaking
• something apart via water

• when
• you remove water to put something together

CHONP

CHON

CHO

CH

amino acids

the unique sequence of amino acids. Held together by peptide bonds

• alpha or beta pleated sheets. Help together by hydrogen
• bonds

actual 3D shape of the protein. First time the protein can do its job. Held together by R-groups-amino acids’s identity point

• happens
• when many proteins clump together

• protein
• assembly helpers

• T/U
• and C

• A
• and G

• free
• energy

• g means you have energy. Have an exergonic reaction-giving
• away NRG

• g means you need energy. You have an endergonic
• reaction-absorbing NRG

• binds
• directly to active site

guardian of DNA

is made in nucleolus

ribosomes and secretes proteins

synthesizes lipids and does detoxification

• receives, warehouses, and ships/ puts zip codes on cell -UPS
• of the cell

comes from mother

• has
• “cliffs”

• has
• “folds”

• detoxify
• and neutralize

degrade and break down

have small vacuoles and vice versa

help your muscles move

discover where cancer is metastasized from

• help
• with cell movement

• come
• from centrioles

relays information from outside of the cell

• let
• nothing through

• join
• cells

let everything in

are used for communication

• majority
• is water

majority is solute

• keep inside environment separated from outside
• environment

having polar and non-polar regions ex.- phospholipid bilayer

peripheral- don't go through membrane

integral- go through membrane

• stabilizes
• the cell membrane

• cellular
• identity

• substance
• moves from high concentration to lower

when water moves from higher to lower

• one
• substance in one direction

• 2
• substances in one direction

• two
• substances in opposite direction

• rapid
• transportation of water

transferring two things at the same time

transport substances outside of the cell

transports substances into the cell

cells ingesting germs/particles

• cells
• ingesting water

• lose
• a hydrogen

• gain
• an electron

• carry
• hydrogen form one place to another

• generates a concentration gradient and use it later to
• produce ATP

• adding a phosphate to a substrate and breaking the bonds
• later to produce ATP

• body
• cells

• sex
• cells

Interphase

• G1- number
• of proteins increase and cells grows larger

• S phase-
• DNA synthesis

• G2- gets
• ready for division

G zero- cell cycle stops and repairs any damage


Checkpoints-G1, G2, M phase

-cells are always diploid

-somatic cells

- 46 chromosomes

when two cells meet they stop dividing

• cell breaks off from where it is supposed to be, it stops
• dividing

controls cell suicide “guardian genome”

programmed cell suicide

normal cell death

-gametes

• -diploid
• from prophase I to Anaphase I

• -becomes haploid
• at Telophase 1

• -Meiosis 2
• always haploid

Synapsis- chromosomes pair

• Chiasmata-crossing
• over of pairs, exchange info

• picture
• of chromosome pairs

• variation
• of a gene

• physical
• characteristic

genetic makeup

• two of the same alleles for a trait. Can be dominant or
• recessive (BB or bb)

• one
• dominant allele and one recessive allele

• gene
• with only one allele

location on a gene

alleles on homologous chromosomes are pulled apart

• random combination of chromosomes of the metaphase plate
• homologous chromosomes find and pair up with eachother

• male
• determining gene

• -antiparallel
• -sythesized 5’ to 3’
• -Nucleotides
• are added on 3’ end

Helicase, Topoisomerase, single strand binding proteins, primase, DNA polymerase 3, DNA polymerase 1, DNA ligase

-5 carbon sugar

• -nitrogenous
• bases

-phosphate group

RNA polymerase and transcription factors bound to DNA

unwinds DNA, adds nucleotides 5’ to 3’



5’ cap added to 5’ end

poly-a tail added to 3’ end

introns-coded regions

• coded
• regions

• non
• coded regions

• introns
• removed, exons slide together

• -silent- no effect noticed; still codes for the same amino acid
• -missense- results in a different amino acid
• -nonsense- mutates into a stop codon; results in an incomplete polypeptide chain

-cannot reproduce by themselves

• -made up of
• nucleic acids and protein coats

-NOT a cell

• protein
• shell around the virus. Made up of capsomeres

• covers
• some capsids

• DNA
• made from RNA using reverse transcriptase

-Single stranded RNA virus

• -Florida is
• number 3 for HIV

• worldwide
• for influenza viruses

• -Spread
• horizontally or vertically

• circular
• RNA
• do
• not encode proteins

misfolded proteins

-use/disuse

• -inheritance
• of acquired characteristics

-naturalist and specimen collecter

• -believed
• in gradualism

• 1.
• Descent with modification

• 2.
• Natural selection

• -overproduction of individuals
• -genetic
• variation
• - environment must favor some
• variations over others

• p=A frequency
• q=a frequency
• p + q = 1
• p² + 2pq + q² = 1

blocks protein channel one

blocks atp synthase

blocks oxygen by attaching to hemoglobin

eats hole in cristae

active transport

from lower concentration to higher

moving from higher concentration to lower WITH protein

release energy

absorb energy

blocks enzyme action

enters through secondary site, then changes the shape of active site

2

154

Thylakoids

cellular identity tags

from high to low

pump ions in and out of membrane

water entering the cell

germs enter the cell

controls cell suicide

keeps telomeres lengthened

add a 5' cap and a Poly A tail to mRNA

• 1. tRNA lands on Psite and exits off of Esite
• 2.2nd tRNA lands on Asite, codes for specific peptide and then chain shifts to Psite.
• 3.entire structure of large, small ribosomal subunit breaks apart and completed polypeptide leaves

• use of mRNA and tRNA and ribosomes to make polypetide chains.
• in cytoplasm
• Esite - tRNA exits
• Psite - polypeptide chain grows
• Asite - tRNA arrives

A triplet of nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid

• AUG(mRNA)
• UAC(tRNA)

UAG, UGA, UAA

• 1st person to decipher codons
• occur in triplets
• four codons 4³ = 64 nucleotides

• both won nobel prizes
• worked with bread molds
• discovered that DNA needs proteins

• conservative- parent strands remain intact, new DNA composed of all new nucleotides
• semiconservative- both parent and new DNA are composed of one new strand and one old strand of DNA
• dispersive- both parent and new DNA are composed of old and new on both strands

• DNA is always synthesized from 5'-> 3'
• new nucleotides are added on at the 3' end
• okazaki fragments happen on the lagging strand
• Eukaryotic cells have multiple replication bubbles happening simultaneously

• both won nobel prizes
• stole photo from Franklin to determine the 3D shape of the DNA double helix

• didn't win nobel prizes
• proved semi-conservative model correct
• E coli replicate in N¹⁵ for 20 minutes
• E coli replicate in N¹⁴ for 20 minutes
• centrofuge for 20 minutes- one band disproved
• centrofuge for 20 more minutes- two bands appeared and disproved dispersive

• didn't win a nobel prize
• A always pairs with T
• C always pairs with G

• didn't win a nobel prized
• took first picture of DNA

• Only Hershey won a Nobel prize
• DNA is hereditary material
• bacterial phage virus that infects bacteria
• 1. radioactive sulfur; found sulfur in proteins
• 2. radioactive phosphate; triphosphate found in DNA
• 3. give bacteriophage to infect E coli
• use a blander to seperate
• 5. centrophuge sample, seperate component; inside the pellet is phosphorous

• Use DNA template to create messenger RNA
• occurs in nucleus
• 1. Find promoter region(TATA box)
• 2. Elongation- RNA polymerase adds nucleotide links together
• 3. stop codon reached and everything breaks apart

• 15 A's means 15 T's
• 70 - 30 = 40
• 40 = G + C
• 20

• Helicase- unwinds and seperates DNA strands
• Topoisomerase- prevents overwinding of DNA
• Single-Stranded binding protein- keep strands seperated
• Primase- sets RNA primer (uses RNA nucleotides)
• DP3- brings and links bases together
• DP1- removes DNA primer
• Ligase- links okasaki fragments

2

3

is on top 5' > 3'

RNA Polymerase

can do both lysogenic and lytic cycles

• it destroys the cell; viralent virus if only lytic
• 1. Phage attaches to cell surface
• 2. Phages injects DNA
• 3. Enzymes destroy host DNA
• 4. Phage genome directs host to produce phage components(DNA, proteins)
• 5. Spontaneous self-assembly
• 6. Cell lyses
• 7. Releases new phages, repeats steps

• Viral genome reproduced without destroying host
• 1. DNA injected into host
• 2.. DNA inserted into host cell chromosome
• 3. prophage genome copied with cell's DNA, passed on to daughter cells, repeat
• 4. Prophage leaves bacterial chromosome
• 5. May start lytic cycle

• Harald zur hausen- for discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer
• Francoise Barre & Luc Montagnier- for discovery of human immunodeficiency virus

virus from external source(insect, gardening tools)

inherit from parent(asexual cuttings, sexually via seeds)

group of individuals of a species sharing common geographic area

Group of populations that have potential to interbreed in nature

• All genes in population at any one time
• includes all alleles at all gene loci in all individuals in a population

all members are identical homozygotes for trait

each allele has a relative frequency

Founder Effect- few individuals colonize new habitat

Bottleneck Effect- Population drastically reduced by natural disaster

heterozygotes have greater survivorship and reproductive success than homozygotes

• DNA synthesis
• skipped after meiosis 1

• happens in cell cycle
• in G1

holds two sister chromatids together

• in meiosis 1- pulls homologous chromosomes apart
• in meiosis II - pulls chromatids apart
• if it breaks, it leads to nondisjunction

• number of different types of gametes that can be made
• n = number of heterozygous pairs

• Holds a homologous pair of chromosomes together
• 2n = 46
• 46 chromosomes
• 23 homologous chromosomes
• 92 sister chromatids
• 23 tetrads
• 46 centromeres

• Homologous chromosomes fail to seperate
• Down's syndrome is a result of nondijunstion of the 21st chromosome

• too many x chromosomes
• male would have xxy
• calico cats

part of a chromosome breaks off and sticks to another one

• blotches of fur are the result of barbodies(deactivated x chromosomes
• fur color is on x

• Hundreds of genes contribute to a phenotype
• ex: height

more than 2 alleles contribute to a genotype

• abo blood system
• universal donor- O
• universal acceptor - ab

• both genes equally show
• ex: AB blood type

• Neither gene shows
• es: red + white = pink

• sharing of DNA after synapsis happens
• happens in prophase 1 of meiosis

• Pairing of homologous chromosomes
• happens in prophase 1 of meiosis

• G1- cell increases in size and increases supply of proteins and organelles
• S - DNA synthesis occurs
• G2 - cell prepares for division, checks for DNA damage
• G0 - cell stops(escape hatch)
• M - Miotic Phase

• when organisms reproduce asexually by splitting in two
• daughter cells recieve identical copy of parent's gene's

46

enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule

chemicals that make the cycle go around

cyclin dependent kinase

develop cancer by 33, no survival rate

genes regulated wrong way

asbestos fibers get into your tissues

• example of genomic imprinting- cells know which parent they came from
• only causes developmental delay when mother transfers a broken x to son

• maturation promoting factor
• general regulator of transition from G2 to M

• one gene has multiple effects
• one gene causes red hair and freckles
• Sickle cell anemia
• Marfan's syndrome

• Cistic Fibrosis
• Tay-sacs
• sickle cell

• Huntington's Disease
• Achondroplasia
• Neurofibromatosis

success of any one morph declines if phenotypic form becomes too common

• variation with no selective advantage/disadvantage, no impact on reproductive success
• Ex: Human fingerprints

• allopatric
• initial block to gene flow is geographical barrier that physically seperates the population
• Ex: mountain ranges, glaciers
• Effectiveness depends on the ability of organisms to disperse

• Gradualism versus punctuated equilibrium
• gradualism- gradually evolves in tiny steps

punctuated eq- most sexually reproducing species will experience little net evolutionary change for most of their geological history,

no mutation

no gene flow

no natural selection

large population

random mating