-
Homeostasis
maintaining a living system w/i an acceptable range.
-
Cell
theory
all cells come from pre-existing cells
-
Prokaryotic
cells
do not have a mitochondria or a nucleus
-
Order
of taxonomy
Kingdom, phylum ,class, order, family, genus, species
-
First
step of scientific method
review accumulated scientific data
Different between a null and alternative hypothesis
A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable
-
4 elements that make up 96% of all living matter
- Hydrogen,
- Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon
-
Valence
how many electrons you need to maintain stability
-
Valence
electrons
how many electrons you have in your outer shell
-
Octet
rule
an atom need 8 electrons in its outer shell to maintain stability
-
Covalent
bonds
electrons are shared
-
Ionic
bonds
electrons are transferred
-
Hydrogen
bonds
bonds between molecules
-
Isotopes
differ in the number of neutrons
-
Cohesion
two of the same substances stick to themselves
-
Adhesion
- two
- different substances stick to each other
-
Surface
tension
- level of difficulty involved in breaking or stretching the
- surface of a liquid
-
Heat
of vaporization
- how
- much energy it takes to change from liquid to gas
-
Specific
heat
amount of heat you need to change the temperature of one gram of something
-
Buffer
- substances
- that minimize changes in hydronium or hydroxide
-
functional
groups
- hydroxyl= OH
- Carbonyl= CO
- Carboxyl= COOH
- Amino= NH2
- Sulfhydryl= SH
- Phosphate= PO4
- Methyl= CH3
-
Enantiomers
- variations around an asymetric carbon
- non-superimposable mirror images
- L-Dopa is effective against Parkinson's while it's enantiomer D-Dopa is biologically inactive
-
Geometric isomer
variations around a double bond
-
Stuctural Isomer
variations in arrangement
-
Isomer
same molecular formula but different structure
Structural
Geometric
Enantiomer
-
Hydrolysis
- breaking
- something apart via water
-
Condensation
synthesis
- when
- you remove water to put something together
-
-
-
-
-
Building
blocks for protein
amino acids
-
Primary
structure
the unique sequence of amino acids. Held together by peptide bonds
-
Secondary
Structure
- alpha or beta pleated sheets. Help together by hydrogen
- bonds
-
Tertiary
structure
actual 3D shape of the protein. First time the protein can do its job. Held together by R-groups-amino acids’s identity point
-
Quaternary
structure
- happens
- when many proteins clump together
-
-
-
-
-
Negative
delta
- g means you have energy. Have an exergonic reaction-giving
- away NRG
-
Positive
delta
- g means you need energy. You have an endergonic
- reaction-absorbing NRG
-
Hydrolysis between phosphate bonds 2 and 3 release energy
from ATP
-
Competitive
inhibition
- binds
- directly to active site
-
negative
and positive feedback
-
-
Ribosomal
RRibosomal
Ribosomal
RNA
is made in nucleolus
-
Rough
ER
ribosomes and secretes proteins
-
Smooth
ER
synthesizes lipids and does detoxification
-
Golgi
apparatus
- receives, warehouses, and ships/ puts zip codes on cell -UPS
- of the cell
-
Mitochondiral
DNA
comes from mother
-
-
-
PLANTS
QUESTIONS FROM CHAPTER 10
-
-
Lysosomes
degrade and break down
-
Complex
cells
have small vacuoles and vice versa
-
Microfilaments
help your muscles move
-
Intermediate
filaments
discover where cancer is metastasized from
-
-
-
Extracellular
matrix
relays information from outside of the cell
-
-
-
Gap
junctions
let everything in
-
Junctions
are used for communication
-
-
Hypertonic
majority is solute
-
Water is a solvent
Salt is a solute
-
Membrane
- keep inside environment separated from outside
- environment
-
Amphopathic
having polar and non-polar regions ex.- phospholipid bilayer
-
Types of proteins
peripheral- don't go through membrane
integral- go through membrane
-
Cholesterol
- stabilizes
- the cell membrane
-
-
Diffusion
- substance
- moves from high concentration to lower
-
Osmosis-
when water moves from higher to lower
-
Uniports
- one
- substance in one direction
-
Symport
- 2
- substances in one direction
-
Anitport
- two
- substances in opposite direction
-
Aquaporins-
- rapid
- transportation of water
-
Cotransport
transferring two things at the same time
-
Exocytosis-
transport substances outside of the cell
-
Endocytosis
transports substances into the cell
-
Phagocytosis
cells ingesting germs/particles
-
-
What
occurs during oxidation?
-
-
Energy
intermediaries
- carry
- hydrogen form one place to another
-
Chemiosmosis
- generates a concentration gradient and use it later to
- produce ATP
-
Substrate
level phosphorylation
- adding a phosphate to a substrate and breaking the bonds
- later to produce ATP
-
-
-
-
-
Cell
Cycle
Interphase
- G1- number
- of proteins increase and cells grows larger
- G2- gets
- ready for division
G zero- cell cycle stops and repairs any damage
Checkpoints-G1, G2, M phase
-
Mitosis
-cells are always diploid
-somatic cells
- 46 chromosomes
-
density
dependent inhibition
when two cells meet they stop dividing
-
anchorage
dependency
- cell breaks off from where it is supposed to be, it stops
- dividing
-
P53
controls cell suicide “guardian genome”
-
Apoptosis
programmed cell suicide
-
Necrosis
normal cell death
-
Meiosis
-gametes
- -diploid
- from prophase I to Anaphase I
- -becomes haploid
- at Telophase 1
-
Prophase 1
Synapsis- chromosomes pair
- Chiasmata-crossing
- over of pairs, exchange info
-
Karyotype
- picture
- of chromosome pairs
-
-
-
-
Homozygous
- two of the same alleles for a trait. Can be dominant or
- recessive (BB or bb)
-
Heterozygrous
- one
- dominant allele and one recessive allele
-
-
-
Law
of segregation
alleles on homologous chromosomes are pulled apart
-
Independent
assortment
- random combination of chromosomes of the metaphase plate
- homologous chromosomes find and pair up with eachother
-
-
-
DNA
- -antiparallel
- -sythesized 5’ to 3’
- -Nucleotides
- are added on 3’ end
-
ENZYMES FOR REPLICATION
Helicase, Topoisomerase, single strand binding proteins, primase, DNA polymerase 3, DNA polymerase 1, DNA ligase
-
DNA is made of
-5 carbon sugar
-phosphate group
-
Transcription
initiation complex
RNA polymerase and transcription factors bound to DNA
-
RNA
polymerase
unwinds DNA, adds nucleotides 5’ to 3’
5’ cap added to 5’ end
poly-a tail added to 3’ end
introns-coded regions
-
-
-
RNA
splicing
- introns
- removed, exons slide together
-
Mutations
- -silent- no effect noticed; still codes for the same amino acid
- -missense- results in a different amino acid
- -nonsense- mutates into a stop codon; results in an incomplete polypeptide chain
-
Viruses
-cannot reproduce by themselves
- -made up of
- nucleic acids and protein coats
-NOT a cell
-
capsid
- protein
- shell around the virus. Made up of capsomeres
-
-
Retrovirus
- DNA
- made from RNA using reverse transcriptase
-
HIV
-Single stranded RNA virus
- -Florida is
- number 3 for HIV
-
pandemic
- worldwide
- for influenza viruses
-
Plant virus
- -Spread
- horizontally or vertically
-
Viroids
- circular
- RNA
- do
- not encode proteins
-
Prions
misfolded proteins
-
Jean Lamarck
-use/disuse
- -inheritance
- of acquired characteristics
-
Charles Darwin
-naturalist and specimen collecter
-
Origin of Species ( 2 main ideas)
- 1.
- Descent with modification
- -overproduction of individuals
- -genetic
- variation
- - environment must favor some
- variations over others
-
Population
Species
Gene pool
Variation in population
-
Hardy-weinberg and formulas
- p=A frequency
- q=a frequency
- p + q = 1
- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
-
Conditions for hardy-weinberg to work
-
-
3 modes of selection
Heterozygote advantage
Frequency dependent selection
Natural Variation
-
Geological Barriers
Tempo of speciation
-
Rotenone
blocks protein channel one
-
oligomycin
blocks atp synthase
-
carbon monoxide & cyanide
blocks oxygen by attaching to hemoglobin
-
-
When NADH and FADH are oxidized in the ETC, what kind of transportation is that?
active transport
-
Active transport
from lower concentration to higher
-
Facillitative Diffusion
moving from higher concentration to lower WITH protein
-
-
-
inhibitor
blocks enzyme action
-
Non-competitive inhibitor
enters through secondary site, then changes the shape of active site
-
glycolosis of 1 glucose yields how many turns of the krab's cycle?
2
-
from 4 glucose molecules, how many ATP is made during complete cellular respiration?
154
-
grana are composed of stocks called?
Thylakoids
-
glycoprotein
cellular identity tags
-
passive diffusion
from high to low
-
electrogenic pump
pump ions in and out of membrane
-
penocytosis
water entering the cell
-
Phagocytosis
germs enter the cell
-
telomere
controls cell suicide
-
telomerase
keeps telomeres lengthened
-
Eukaryotes
add a 5' cap and a Poly A tail to mRNA
-
Translation process
- 1. tRNA lands on Psite and exits off of Esite
- 2.2nd tRNA lands on Asite, codes for specific peptide and then chain shifts to Psite.
- 3.entire structure of large, small ribosomal subunit breaks apart and completed polypeptide leaves
-
Translation
- use of mRNA and tRNA and ribosomes to make polypetide chains.
- in cytoplasm
- Esite - tRNA exits
- Psite - polypeptide chain grows
- Asite - tRNA arrives
-
Codon
A triplet of nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid
-
-
-
Nirenberg
- 1st person to decipher codons
- occur in triplets
- four codons 43 = 64 nucleotides
-
Beadle and Tatum
- both won nobel prizes
- worked with bread molds
- discovered that DNA needs proteins
-
DNA replication models
- conservative- parent strands remain intact, new DNA composed of all new nucleotides
- semiconservative- both parent and new DNA are composed of one new strand and one old strand of DNA
- dispersive- both parent and new DNA are composed of old and new on both strands
-
DNA Replication info
- DNA is always synthesized from 5'-> 3'
- new nucleotides are added on at the 3' end
- okazaki fragments happen on the lagging strand
- Eukaryotic cells have multiple replication bubbles happening simultaneously
-
Watson and Crick
- both won nobel prizes
- stole photo from Franklin to determine the 3D shape of the DNA double helix
-
Messelson and Stahl
- didn't win nobel prizes
- proved semi-conservative model correct
- E coli replicate in N15 for 20 minutes
- E coli replicate in N14 for 20 minutes
- centrofuge for 20 minutes- one band disproved
- centrofuge for 20 more minutes- two bands appeared and disproved dispersive
-
Erwin Chargoff
- didn't win a nobel prize
- A always pairs with T
- C always pairs with G
-
Rosalind Franklin
- didn't win a nobel prized
- took first picture of DNA
-
Hershey and Chase
- Only Hershey won a Nobel prize
- DNA is hereditary material
- bacterial phage virus that infects bacteria
- 1. radioactive sulfur; found sulfur in proteins
- 2. radioactive phosphate; triphosphate found in DNA
- 3. give bacteriophage to infect E coli
- use a blander to seperate
- 5. centrophuge sample, seperate component; inside the pellet is phosphorous
-
Transcription
- Use DNA template to create messenger RNA
- occurs in nucleus
- 1. Find promoter region(TATA box)
- 2. Elongation- RNA polymerase adds nucleotide links together
- 3. stop codon reached and everything breaks apart
-
If there are 70 nucleotides and 15 areA. how many are G?
- 15 A's means 15 T's
- 70 - 30 = 40
- 40 = G + C
- 20
-
DNA synthesis process
- Helicase- unwinds and seperates DNA strands
- Topoisomerase- prevents overwinding of DNA
- Single-Stranded binding protein- keep strands seperated
- Primase- sets RNA primer (uses RNA nucleotides)
- DP3- brings and links bases together
- DP1- removes DNA primer
- Ligase- links okasaki fragments
-
How many bonds between T and A
2
-
How many bonds between C and G?
3
-
anticodon
is on top 5' > 3'
-
Which enzyme synthesizes m-RNA?
RNA Polymerase
-
Temperate virus
can do both lysogenic and lytic cycles
-
Lytic cycle
- it destroys the cell; viralent virus if only lytic
- 1. Phage attaches to cell surface
- 2. Phages injects DNA
- 3. Enzymes destroy host DNA
- 4. Phage genome directs host to produce phage components(DNA, proteins)
- 5. Spontaneous self-assembly
- 6. Cell lyses
- 7. Releases new phages, repeats steps
-
Lysogenic Cycle
- Viral genome reproduced without destroying host
- 1. DNA injected into host
- 2.. DNA inserted into host cell chromosome
- 3. prophage genome copied with cell's DNA, passed on to daughter cells, repeat
- 4. Prophage leaves bacterial chromosome
- 5. May start lytic cycle
-
2008 Nobel Prize in Medicine
- Harald zur hausen- for discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer
- Francoise Barre & Luc Montagnier- for discovery of human immunodeficiency virus
-
Horizontal Spreading
virus from external source(insect, gardening tools)
-
Vertical Spreading
inherit from parent(asexual cuttings, sexually via seeds)
-
Population
group of individuals of a species sharing common geographic area
-
Species
Group of populations that have potential to interbreed in nature
-
Gene Pool
- All genes in population at any one time
- includes all alleles at all gene loci in all individuals in a population
-
Fixed Gene Pool
all members are identical homozygotes for trait
-
Not FIxed Gene Pool
each allele has a relative frequency
-
Genetic Drift
Founder Effect- few individuals colonize new habitat
Bottleneck Effect- Population drastically reduced by natural disaster
-
Heterozygot advantage
heterozygotes have greater survivorship and reproductive success than homozygotes
-
S Phase
- DNA synthesis
- skipped after meiosis 1
-
restriction point
- happens in cell cycle
- in G1
-
Centromere
holds two sister chromatids together
-
Spindle Fiber
- in meiosis 1- pulls homologous chromosomes apart
- in meiosis II - pulls chromatids apart
- if it breaks, it leads to nondisjunction
-
2n
- number of different types of gametes that can be made
- n = number of heterozygous pairs
-
Tetrad
- Holds a homologous pair of chromosomes together
- 2n = 46
- 46 chromosomes
- 23 homologous chromosomes
- 92 sister chromatids
- 23 tetrads
- 46 centromeres
-
Nondisjunction
- Homologous chromosomes fail to seperate
- Down's syndrome is a result of nondijunstion of the 21st chromosome
-
Kleinfelter's syndrome
- too many x chromosomes
- male would have xxy
- calico cats
-
Translocation
part of a chromosome breaks off and sticks to another one
-
Calico cats
- blotches of fur are the result of barbodies(deactivated x chromosomes
- fur color is on x
-
Polygenis inheritance
- Hundreds of genes contribute to a phenotype
- ex: height
-
Multiple alleles inheritance
more than 2 alleles contribute to a genotype
- abo blood system
- universal donor- O
- universal acceptor - ab
-
Codominance
- both genes equally show
- ex: AB blood type
-
Incomplete dominance
- Neither gene shows
- es: red + white = pink
-
Chiasmata
- sharing of DNA after synapsis happens
- happens in prophase 1 of meiosis
-
Synapsis
- Pairing of homologous chromosomes
- happens in prophase 1 of meiosis
-
Cell Cycle
- G1- cell increases in size and increases supply of proteins and organelles
- S - DNA synthesis occurs
- G2 - cell prepares for division, checks for DNA damage
- G0 - cell stops(escape hatch)
- M - Miotic Phase
-
Binary fission
- when organisms reproduce asexually by splitting in two
- daughter cells recieve identical copy of parent's gene's
-
Diploid number in Humanns
46
-
Kinase
enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule
-
cyclins
chemicals that make the cycle go around
-
CDK
cyclin dependent kinase
-
Glysomeny syndrome
develop cancer by 33, no survival rate
-
Leukemia
genes regulated wrong way
-
Mesophelioma
asbestos fibers get into your tissues
-
Fragile X syndrome
- example of genomic imprinting- cells know which parent they came from
- only causes developmental delay when mother transfers a broken x to son
-
MPF
- maturation promoting factor
- general regulator of transition from G2 to M
-
Pleiotropy
- one gene has multiple effects
- one gene causes red hair and freckles
- Sickle cell anemia
- Marfan's syndrome
-
Autosomal recessive disorders
- Cistic Fibrosis
- Tay-sacs
- sickle cell
-
Autosomal Dominant disorders
- Huntington's Disease
- Achondroplasia
- Neurofibromatosis
-
Frequency Dependent selection
success of any one morph declines if phenotypic form becomes too common
-
Nuetral variation
- variation with no selective advantage/disadvantage, no impact on reproductive success
- Ex: Human fingerprints
-
Geographical Barrier
- allopatric
- initial block to gene flow is geographical barrier that physically seperates the population
- Ex: mountain ranges, glaciers
- Effectiveness depends on the ability of organisms to disperse
-
Tempo of Speciation
- Gradualism versus punctuated equilibrium
- gradualism- gradually evolves in tiny steps
punctuated eq- most sexually reproducing species will experience little net evolutionary change for most of their geological history,
-
Conditions for hardy-weinberg to work
no mutation
no gene flow
no natural selection
large population
random mating
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