Biology Final

maintaining a living system w/i an acceptable range.

all cells come from pre-existing cells

do not have a mitochondria or a nucleus

Kingdom, phylum ,class, order, family, genus, species

review accumulated scientific data

Different between a null and alternative hypothesis

• Null- no
• difference

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable

• Hydrogen,
• Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon

how many electrons you need to maintain stability

how many electrons you have in your outer shell

an atom need 8 electrons in its outer shell to maintain stability

electrons are shared

electrons are transferred

bonds between molecules

differ in the number of neutrons

two of the same substances stick to themselves

• two
• different substances stick to each other

• level of difficulty involved in breaking or stretching the
• surface of a liquid

• how
• much energy it takes to change from liquid to gas

amount of heat you need to change the temperature of one gram of something

• substances
• that minimize changes in hydronium or hydroxide

• hydroxyl=OH,
• Carbonyl=CO, Carboxyl=COOH

same molecular formula but different structure

Structural

Geometric

Enantiomer

• breaking
• something apart via water

• when
• you remove water to put something together

CHONP

CHON

CHO

CH

amino acids

• alpha or beta pleated sheets. Help together by hydrogen
• bonds

actual 3D shape of the protein. First time the protein can do its job. Help together by R-groups-amino acids’s identity point

• happens
• when many proteins clump together

• protein
• assembly helpers

• T/U
• and C

• A
• and G

• free
• energy

• g means you have energy. Have an exergonic reaction-giving
• away NRG

• g means you need energy. You have an endergonic
• reaction-absorbing NRG

• binds
• directly to active site

guardian of DNA

is made in nucleolus

ribosomes and secretes proteins

synthesizes lipids and does detoxification

• receives, warehouses, and ships/ puts zip codes on cell -UPS
• of the cell

comes from mother

• has
• “cliffs”

• has
• “folds”

• detoxify
• and neutralize

degrade and break down

have small vacuoles and vice versa

help your muscles move

discover where cancer is metastasized from

• help
• with cell movement

• come
• from centrioles

relays information from outside of the cell

• let
• nothing through

• join
• cells

let everything in

are used for communication

• majority
• is water

majority is solute

• keep inside environment separated from outside
• environment

having polar and non-polar regions ex.- phospholipid bilayer

• are
• on outside or inside of cell

• stabilizes
• the cell membrane

• cellular
• identity

• substance
• moves from high concentration to lower

when water moves from higher to lower

• one
• substance in one direction

• 2
• substances in one direction

• two
• substances in opposite direction

• rapid
• transportation of water

transferring two things at the same time

transport substances outside of the cell

transports substances into the cell

cells ingesting germs/particles

• cells
• ingesting water

• lose
• a hydrogen

• gain
• an electron

• carry
• hydrogen form one place to another

• generates a concentration gradient and use it later to
• produce ATP

• adding a phosphate to a substrate and breaking the bonds
• later to produce ATP

• body
• cells

• sex
• cells

Interphase

• G1- number
• of proteins increase and cells grows larger

• S phase-
• DNA synthesis

• G2- gets
• ready for division

G zero- cell cycle stops and repairs any damage


Checkpoints-G1, G2, M phase

-cells are always diploid

-somatic cells

- 46 chromosomes

when two cells meet they stop dividing

• cell breaks off from where it is supposed to be, it stops
• dividing

controls cell suicide “guardian genome”

programmed cell suicide

normal cell death

-gametes

• -diploid
• from prophase I to Anaphase I

• -becomes haploid
• at Telophase 1

• -Meiosis 2
• always haploid

Synapsis- chromosomes pair

• Chiasmata-crossing
• over of pairs, exchange info

• picture
• of chromosome pairs

• variation
• of a gene

• physical
• characteristic

genetic makeup

• two of the same alleles for a trait. Can be dominant or
• recessive (BB or bb)

• one
• dominant allele and one recessive allele

• gene
• with only one allele

location on a gene

alleles on homologous chromosomes are pulled apart

random combination of chromosomes of the metaphase plate

• male
• determining gene

• -antiparallel
• -sythesized 5’ to 3’
• -Nucleotides
• are added on 3’ end

Helicase, Topoisomerase, single strand binding proteins, primase, DNA polymerase 3, DNA polymerase 1, DNA ligase

-5 carbon sugar

• -nitrogenous
• bases

-phosphate group

• Hershey
• and Chase, Erwin Chargoff, Watson and Crick, Messelson and Stahl.

RNA polymerase and transcription factors bound to DNA

unwinds DNA, adds nucleotides 5’ to 3’



5’ cap added to 5’ end

poly-a tail added to 3’ end

introns-coded regions

• coded
• regions

• non
• coded regions

• introns
• removed, exons slide together

• -silent
• -missense
• -nonsense

-cannot reproduce by themselves

• -made up of
• nucleic acids and protein coats

-NOT a cell

• protein
• shell around the virus. Made up of capsomeres

• covers
• some capsids

• can
• do both lytic and lysogenic cycles

• DNA
• made from RNA using reverse transcriptase

-Single stranded RNA virus

• -Florida is
• number 3 for HIV

• worldwide
• for influenza viruses

• -Spread
• horizontally or vertically

• circular
• RNA
• do
• not encode proteins

misfolded proteins

-use/disuse

• -inheritance
• of acquired characteristics

-naturalist and specimen collecter

• -believed
• in gradualism

• 1.
• Descent with modification

• 2.
• Natural selection

• -overproduction of individuals
• -genetic
• variation
• - environment must favor some
• variations over others

p + q = 1

p² + 2pq² + q² = 1