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The fusion of a male gamete(sperm) & female gamete(egg) to form a zygote.

Single cells, produced by adult organisms, which are specialized for mating; gametes often die if mating is not accomplished.

Male gametes.

female gametes.

Single cells that result from the fusion of gametes. If conditions are favorable, zygotes develop into adults, completeing the reproductive cycle.

A nucular division process that reduces the number of chromosomes by one-half. Sexual reproduction cycles of eukaryotes requires meiosis.

Gametes, zygotes, and meiosis.

• Combines DNA of 2 different organisms, creating new combinations of valuable genetic traits.
• The potenial to colonize new types of environments or adapt to changing conditions.
• It speeds the loss of deleterious genes.
• Allows potentially beneficial genes to escape the influences of inhibitory genes that previously held them in check.

• It requires few resources and less energy than sexual reproduction.
• It does not exspose gametes to the risk of not finding a mate.
• If asexual reproductive structures do not undergo fertilization, they do not die, they develop into new organisms if the environment is stable.
• It requires 1 parent.
• The progney are geneticlly alike, increasing the survival rate in stable environments.
• Is more effective in harsh environments.

Condidia.

The plant destroyer, it is a microbe which causes diseases in many plants, and reproduces sexually and asexually.

Structures that produce and enclose spores.

single-celled reproductive structures that are dispersed from the parent, which can result from both sexual and asexual processess.

• Elodea
• Hawkweed
• Dandelions
• Aspen Tree

Is the process by which 2 gametes fuse during sexual mating. Also known as, fertilization.

The basic number of chromosomes (1) present in gametes, also known as "N". Some plants N=2, and some can be greater than 500. For humans, N=23

• The zygote nuclei contain the total number of all the chromosomes(sets) contibuted by each gamete, the chromosome number(diploid) for the zygote is
• 2N. For humans 2N=46

• N(23)gamete+N(23)gamete=Zygote
• 2N(46)=Humans

Members of pairs of chromosomes(one derived from each parent) that are similar in size and gene type. These chromosomes mix together in the process of meiosis, to create a zygote. A human has 23 homologous chromosomes

Idenitcal copies of each chromosome that remain attached by a centromere.

A life cycle in which a haploid (N) gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis that fuse into a diploid (2N) zygote that germinates and grows into a sporophyte. The sporophyte produces spores by meiosis that form new gametophytes.

• Meiosis occurs in 2 stages (meiosis 1 & 2).
• It prevents the buildup of chromosomes that would otherwise occur after many generations of sexual reproduction.
• Contributes to genetic variations in populations of organisms by shuffling the chromosomes donated by parents.
• Meiosis provides a oppurtunity for chromosomes to exchange segments, a process known as "crossing over".

Homologous chromosomes are paired in meiosis 1, they can exchange segments, thereby creating new genetic combinations. This chromosome segment exchange process in known as "crossing over".

If homologous chromosomes to not seperate at anaphase of meiosis 1, an event known as nondisjunction, abnormal gametes are formed.

It seperates homologous chromosomes, producing 2 haploid cells(N chromosomes, 23 in humans)Also known as reductional division. A regular diploid human cell contains 46 chromatids, it is only considered as being "N", with 23 chromosomes. This is because later, anaphase 1, the sister chromatids will remain together as the spindle fibres pulls the pair toward the pole of the new cell.

An equational division similar to mitosis will occur whereby the sister chromatids are finally split, creating a total of 4 haploids cells (23 chromosomes, N) per daughter cell produced in meiosis 1.

A form of nuclear division in which a set of chromosome copies resulting from DNA replication are distributed to progeny cells.

• Gametic
• Zygotic
• Sporic

The gametes arise by meiosis, characterizes animals and some algae

Typical of many protists; meiosis occurs during zygote germination.

Sexual spores are generated by meiosis, occur in land-adapted plants and some algae, notably giant kelps. Plants and algae with sporic life cycles have 2 alternating multicellular bodies, the sporophyte (which produces sexual spores) and the gametophyte (which produces gametes).

Nondisjunction, abnormal gametes are formed. In humans, gametes normally have 23 chromosomes. However, nondisjuction can result in gametes having more than 23 chromosomes. If a gamete with (2) 21 chromosomes fuses with a game having normal chromosome number, the child that results will likely suffer from Downs Syndrome or some degree of mental retardation.

An Austrian monk who experimanted with garden peas, worked out the basic patterns of inheritance of genetic traits in the 1860s.

The result of crossbreeding between 2 varieties, species, or genera.

A cross between 2 varieties that differ in only one trait.

A term applied to the reapperance of recessive traits in offspring hybrids. The recessive traits reappear because the chromosomes (and their genes) from each parent seperate in meiosis.

The process the occurs in some plants in which a single flower produces both the male and female gametes that can fuse and produce healthy offspring.

In plants, the fusion of gametes derivied from flowers on different varieties.

The resulting hybird offspring of cross fertilizing 2 different varieties of plant.

Dominent.

Recessive.

The result when F1 plants self pollenate and the seeds are planted. Gregor Mendel did this to find out what traits would appear in the F2 plant. Some of the F2 individuals produced the recessive trait.

A box diagram developed by British geneticist Reginald Punnett to represent the genetic combinations in a cross between parental varieties.

Also known as the law of segregation. Mendels first law of heredity states that alleles for a gene segregate independently of each other in individuals that pocess both alleles.

A cross in which an organism showing the phenotype of the dominant trait is crossed with one showing the recessive trait to determine if the dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous for the domiant trait.

One of two or more different forms of a gene.

The site on homologous chromosomes where alleles for a gene are located.

An individual that pocesses two copies of the same allele of a gene.

An individual that pocesses two copies of different alleles for a single gene.

The physical characteristic on an organism. In garden peas, for example, purple flower color is a phenotype, but the genotype could be PP or Pp.

The genetic makeup of an organism.

A genetic conditon in which neither of the two alleles of a gene is dominant over the other, and the heterozygous individual had a phenotype intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.

Genetic triats that are controlled by several genes, such as height in humans and kernal color in wheat.

Its the genetic condition that arises when 2 or more genes are located close together on the same chromosome. Linked genes tend to be inherited together.

The formation of new combinations of alleles by the exchange of segments between homologous chromosomes.

A cross between individuals or plant varieties that differ in 2 traits.

A genetic condition in which two genes combine to produce a trait. A defect in either gene prevents expression of that trait.

Also known as, the Law of Independent Assortment Mendels Second Law that states that genes for different traits located on different non-homologous chromosomes assort independently of each other during meiosis.

Designated with X and Y, they are responsible for sex determination.

Non-sex chromosomes.

The phenomenon were hybrids are often larger, more vigorous, and produce larger seed crops than any pure-breeding single variety.

Geneticlly Engineered Organism

• Biological organisms, like plasmid and viruses.
• Newer methods like micoinjection, electro and chemical poration, bioballestics.

• Enzymes that leave the DNA double helix at specific nucleotude sequences.
• One of 2 tools used for producing recombinant DNA.

The transformed plant cell is allowed to divided then treated with hormones to differentiate into a plant.

In the cytoplasm on the rER.

A set of tools that allows one to alter the genetic makeup of an organism.

• Crops grow faster.
• Crops are larger.
• More resistant to pest and disease.
• Reduces pesticides and herbicides.

The genetic manipulation of biological organisms by humans to better suit then for human needs, or industrial applications of biological organisms.

• Restriction enzymes.
• Ligase.

Polymearse Chain Reaction, a procedure for amplifying a specific sequence of DNA by subjecting it to numerous cycles of polymerzation followed by seperation of complitmentary strands. 2 DNA primers, one complementary to each end of the selected DNA sequence, are used to amplify the selected sequence.

• mRNA
• rRNA
• tRNA

• Polymearse.
• Heliocase.
• Ligase.

• Paturnity testing.
• Forensics.

• A vector (plasmid or virus)
• Gene of interest.

A new trans-genetic plant is crossed with a high yeilding plant.

Interphase.

• DNA isolation.
• Gene cloning(recombinant DNA technology)
• Cell transformation.
• Breeding.

• Treat source DNA and plasmid DNA with restriction enzymes.
• Mix together, adding DNA ligase.
• Many recombiant DNA is produced each with a different piece of source DNA.
• Transform bacterial cells.
• Each bacterial cell carries a different recombiant plasmid.

When DNA is transcribed to RNA which is translated into protein.

• Transgenetic animals that provide models for human diseases.
• Producing pharmaceuticals and releasing them in milk.

• An enzyme used to join fragments of DNA or RNA.
• One of 2 tools needed for producing recombiant DNA.

In the nucleus.

Genetically modified organism.

It unzips the DNA.

• Restriction fragment length polymorphism.
• It is used as a probe to indentify specific DNA fragments derived from restriction enzyme digestion.
• Slows variations in sizes of fragments in different individuals.

Taking genes and segments of DNA from one spices and transferring them to another spices to achieve a desired effect on an organism.

• HGH for dwarfism.
• Insulin for diabetes.
• interferon for cancer and MS.
• Gene therpy.

A term used to describe the incorporation of foreign DNA into the normal DNA of an organism.

• Crops become poison to benefical insects.
• pests build up a tolerence to GM crops.
• Plant viruses spread.

Central dogma.

Plants and other organisms that have pieces of mobile DNA.

Small circular pieces of DNA that occur in bacterial cells in addition to the single main circle of DNA, the genosphore. Plasmids can be used as vectors to move pieces of DNA between organisms.

• DNA is unzipped bu helicase.
• The polymerse attaches the complimantary base pairs.
• The ligase forms the strain.
• The MRNA travels through the cytoplasm to the ribosome, were the TRNA attaches amino acids in the sequence the MRNA asks for.

Sequences of 3 nuceotide bases, known as triplets, which occur in linear arrays on messenger DNA.