Dr. E exam 4

• osseous tissue
• compact=osteons
• spongy=cancellous

• support
• protection
• movement(rigid bar of lever)
• blood formation=HEMATOPOIESIS
• inorganic salt storage= 70% of matrix=mostly sm. crystals of a type of calcium phosphate called HYDROXYAPATITE

• cells=osteo-
• ORGANIC matrix=OSTEOID 35% collagen fibers and ground substance (PROTEOGLYCANS & GLYCOPROTEIN)
• INORGANIC MATRIX=65% hydroxyapitate Ca²⁺ salts

• dense regular CT
• covers outer surface of bone
• vascular
• supplied with nerves
• aids in growth and repair
• outer layer=fibrous
• inner layer=cellular
• tough
• firmly attached
• perioteal fibers are continuous with connected tendons and ligaments

• osteogenic
• mesenchymal
• can make new bone

• mesenchymal derived
• secretes matrix of bone
• makes soft part of bone matrix

• mature osteoblasts
• trapped in lacunae (space within woven and lamellar bone)
• LAMELLAR=bone tissue organized into thin sheets/layers of mature bone
• maintains bone

• osteolysis
• monocyte derived
• eats bone

• outer surface of long bone
• hyaline cartilage

• inner part of long bone
• NO osteons
• matrix=struts and plates=TRABECULAE(oriented along lines of mechanical stress applied by body weight)
• located where bones AREN'T stressed
• light but strong
• supports and protects red marrow

• proximal end of epiphysis(end of long bone that consists of spongy bone)
• resting cells
• connects to rest of bone

• many rows of young cells
• MITOSIS=active growth

• old cells
• cells enlarging and becoming calcified
• left behind when new cells appear

• thin
• dead cells
• calcified inner cellular substance

• site of blood cells formation
• found in spongy bone of skull, ribs, sternum, clavicle, vertebrae and pelvis
• in epiphysis of long bone
• RBCs, Plts, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils and monocytes
• T&B lymphocytes

• CT membrane
• lines internal surface of all cavities INSIDE bone
• single layer
• osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteochondrial progenitor cells

• "cortical"
• solid
• osteons are the structural unit
• OUTER part of bone

• space in diaphysis(shaft) of long bone
• osteoclast remove bone during endochondrial ossification and specialized cells form red marrow

in skull and limbs EXCEPT in proximal epiphysis

• bone originates in sheet-like layers of fibrous/mesenchymal CT
• in broad flat bones(skull and clavicle)
• 1.starts w/CT sheets
• 2.blood vessels invade CT
• 3.membrane formed which helps osteochondral progenitor cells become osteoblasts
• 4.osteocytes get trapped
• 5.hardens
• 6.honeycomb is formed by continued mineral deposits
• 7.surface fills in
• COMPLETE BY AGE 2

• begins as hyaline cartilage
• forms most of bones in skeleton(long bones)
• 1.hyaline forms
• 2.periosteim develops(calcified cartilage)
• 3.compact bone develops
• BEGINS IN FETUS SOME MAY NOT BEGIN TIL AGE 18-20

bad because if they aren't fixed right bones may develop unevenly or stop growing altogether

• 2 step process that continues through life
• 1.Bone resorption=osteoclasts and parathyroid hormone breakdown bone and raise blood calcium
• 2.Bone Deposition=osteoblasts and calcitonin build bone up and blood loses calcium

• hydroxyapitate=specific tissue that forms bone
• vitamin A=bone development
• vitamin C=bone strength
• vitamin D=calcium absorption
• sex hormones=bone formantion and stimulation of ossification(closure) of epiphseal plates
• insulin-like growth factors=stimulated by hGH
• insufficient growth hormone=pituitary dwarfism
• excessive growth hormone=gigantism, acromegaly
• insufficient thyroid hormone=delayed bone growth
• pysical stress=excersize stimulates bone growth

• vitamin D->PTH w/ calcitriol(cholesterol derived)->rate of intestinal apsorption increases
• PTH->kidneys retain calcium ions
• PTH->osteoclasts stimulated to increase release of stored calcium ions

• decreased PTH->rate of intestinal absorption decreases
• calcitonin->kidneys lose calcium ions
• calcitonin->osteoclasts inhibited->osteoblasts continue to lock calcium bone matrix

• process of blood cell formation
• takes place in red marrow
• myeloid cells(rbcs, plts, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, monocytes)
• t&b lymphocytic cells

• supports larynx(at upper part of trachea where vocal cords are located
• site of attachment for muscles of larynx, pharynx,(throat), and tongue
• suspended from styloid process by ligaments and muscles

• frontal
• zygomatic, sphenoid, ethimoid, lacrimal sulcus(tear duct)
• palatine
• maxilla

• superior and inferior orbital fissure
• optic canal
• nasolacrimal canal
• infraorbital groove
• supra and infra orbital foramen

• air-filled mucous-membrane lined chambers connected to the nasal cavity
• 1.FRONTAL(2)->above eyes near midline
• 2.SPHENOIDAL(2)->sphenoid bone above posterior portion of nasal cavity
• 3.ETHMOIDAL(2groups)->ethmoid bone on either side of upper portion of nasal cavity
• 4.MAXILLARY(2)->lateral to nasal cavity extends from floor of orbits to roots of upper teeth

• creates swirls, turbulence and eddies that:
• 1.direct particles against mucous to trap toxins
• 2.slows air movement so its warmed and humidified
• 3.directs air to superior nasal cavity to olfactory nerves(cribriform plate) sense of smell

• fibrous membranes in a fetal/infant skull that allows movement of skull bones and brain growth
• anterior fontanel is largest and last to close(2y/o)
• all other fontanels close around 2-3 months

• thorasci and sacral areas
• present at brith
• "accommodation curves" since they accommodate the thoracic and pelvic organs

• cervical and lumbar areas
• don't develop until several months after birth as infants begin to hold their heads up and stand
• "compensation curves" because they shift the weight of the trunk over the limbs

• KYPHOSIS->exagerated THORACIC curve(hunchback)
• LORDOSIS->exagerated LUMBAR curve(protrudes into stomach
• SCOLIOSIS->abnormal LATERAL curve(spine doesn't go straight down)

• anulus fibrosus surrounds nucleus pulposus
• spinal cord is located between poserior longitudinal ligament and spinous process

nucleus pulposus pushed to one side and presses on spinal nerves

• 7 pairs of VERTEBROSTERNAL ribs->true ribs, has own attachment to vertebrae and sternum
• 3 pairs of VERTEBROCHONDRAL ribs->false ribs, attaches to vertebrae and cartilage of 7th true rib
• 2 pairs of VERTEBRAL ribs->floating ribs, attaches to vertebrae only

• no articulation with vertebral column
• shallow socket for limbs to maximize movement at the expense of strength

between acromion and clavicle

between humerus and glenoid cavity

Between sternum and clavicle

• tendon of supraspinatus muscle(posterior superior between acromion and coracoid processes)
• tendon of infraspinatus muscle(posterior under acromion process)
• teres minor muscle(posterior inferior)
• subscapularis muscle(anterior inferior)

• sacroiliac joint DIRECTLY articulates with vertebral column
• deep joint for maximum strength at the expense of movement
• 2 COXAE->supports trunk of body and protects viscera

• pelvic brim->circular inside
• pelvic inlet->across pelvic brim
• pelvic outlet->between ischial spines, bottom circle
• greater/false pelvis->NO ORGANS, ilium, above pelvic brim
• lesser/true pelvis->HAS ORGANS, pubis, ischium, sacrum

hallus, hallucis

pollex, pollicis

• enables foot to support weight
• ideally distributes weight over hard and soft tissues
• provides leverage for walking

• longways medially
• instep
• calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiforms and 1-3 metatarsals

• longways laterally
• calcaneus, cuboid, 4-5 metatarsals

• across top of foot
• cuboid, cuneiforms, base of metatarsals

• dense CT connects bones
• between bones that are in close contact(no space just CT)

hyaline or fibrocartilage connects bone

• most complex
• allows FREE movements
• have a cavity
• diarthrotic
• articular cartilage
• synovial membrane
• synovial fluid
• reinforcing->ligaments, bursae and tendons

immovable

slightly movable

freely movable

• amphiarthrotic
• desmos=band/ligament
• broad sheets/bundles
• long fibers that connect bones
• EX. distal ends of tibia and fibula

• synarthrotic
• sew
• thin layers of CT that connects flat bones
• EX. sutures of cranial bones

• synarthrotic
• bolts
• peg in socket
• EX. tooth in jaw

• synarthrotic
• bands of hyaline cartilage
• EX. between manubrium and 1st rib(sternocostal)

• pad of fibrocartilage between bone
• EX. vertebral disks, pubic symphasis

• lubricates
• distributes nutrients
• absorbs shock

• nonaxial
• between carples/tarsels
• flat surfaces that move past each other

• monaxial
• elbow/knee
• angular open/close movement

• monaxial
• between proximal ends of ulna and radius
• the DENS on the atlas and axis
• rotation around long axis

• biaxial
• between carples and metacarples of thumb
• angular movements(north & south/east & west)

• multiaxial
• hip/shoulder
• movement around 3 axis and inbetween

• biaxial
• between metacarples and phalanges
• angular motion

• decrease angle between bones
• direction of greatest mobility
• EX. hand up to shoulder

• putting back into anatomical position
• usually happens after flexion

• extension BEYOND anatomical position
• joints are limited by tendons, ligaments and bone

• movement side to side on frontal plane
• hand into stomach

move away from midline

move toward midline

movement of distal end of limbs in a circle

hand in anatomical position palm upward

hand turned posteriorly

move head forward

move head back after protraction

• foot SM
• flex out toward 5th toe(lateral)

• thumb SM
• thumb touchs 5th finger

• foot SM
• flex in toward 1st toe(medial)

• foot SM
• toes up toward shin

• foot SM
• toes curled toward sole of foot

• stable
• flexsion/extension
• hinge and gliding joints
• HUMERORADIAL
• LIGAMENTS->*ANNULAR, ULNAR & RADIAL COLLATERAL*

• femur and coxa
• ball and socket
• heavy joint capsule
• LIGAMENTS->*PUBOFEMERAL, ILEOFEMERAL & ISCHIOFEMORAL*

• knee
• most complex joint of the body
• modified hinge joint
• flexion/extension/little rotation
• menisci(between femur and tibia, fibrocartilage)
• LIGAMENTS->*FIBULAR COLLATERAL, PATELLAR, TIBIAL COLLATERAL, ANTERIOR/POSTERIOR CRUCIATE(cross over joint)

• attaches to bone
• voluntary
• striated
• multinucleated
• movement
• heat(shivering)
• provide stability
• provide structural tone(purposeful)

• walls of viscera, blood vessels and skin
• involuntary
• non-striated
• exibts rhythmicity and peristalsis(progressive wave of contraction and relaxation/forces contents through system)
• guards entrances and exists
• regulates internal organ movement and volume

• walls of heart
• involuntary
• striated
• branched
• gap junctions and desmosomes
• pumps blood

• contractile->shortens forcefully but can't forcefully lengthen
• extensible->can stretch
• elastic->returns to resting length
• excitable->responds to electric impulses
• conductive->transmits electrical impulses

• bone
• tendon
• fascia
• epimysium(around muscle)
• muscle
• perimysium(around fascicle)
• fascicle
• endomysium
• fiber(cells)
• myofibrils
• thick and thin filiments

• muscle plasma membrane
• surrounds muscle cell

• low Ca²⁺
• muscle cell cytoplasm
• inside sarcolemma
• fluid surrounds myofibrils

• high Ca²⁺
• smooth ER located between T-tubules
• stores calcium

• middle tube of triad
• opens to outside of sarcolemma
• contains extracellular fluid
• high Na⁺ low K⁺

• enlarged portions of sarcoplasmic reticulum
• one on each side of the t-tubule in the triad

low Na⁺ high K⁺

• 1-2 micrometers in diameter
• inside sarcoplasmic reticulum
• sarcomeres
• myosin and actin filiments

• contractile unit of a muscle
• I band->isotropic light, non overlapping
• A band->anisotropic dark, does overlap
• H zone->myosin
• Z line->"disk" sarcomere runs from 1 Z to another
• M line->down the middle of a sarcomere

• 1.motor neuron fires ACh releases(tells muscle its time to contract)
• 2.depolarization(action potential reaches t-tubules->muscle gets excited)
• 3.sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca²⁺
• 4.sarcomere shortens(z lines move toward each other)
• 5.muscle shortens(tension is produced)

• 1.ACh is removed by AChE(quickly)
• 2.sarcoplasmic reticulum recaptures the Ca²⁺
• 3.active sites are recovered
• 4.contraction ends
• 5.relaxation occurs(passively)

• action potential causes contraction of a muscle fiber
• sarcolemma, t-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca²⁺, troponin
• links nerve stimulation with muscle contraction

• ATP is 4-6 secs. worth of contraction
• 1.creatine phosphate->quickly converts ADP to ATP CP+ATP 10-15 secs. of energy
• 2.glycolysis->lactic acid(anaerobic) breaks down glycogen 30secs to 2mins energy
• 3.aerobic respiration->must slow down after glycolysis to breath uses O₂ from MYOGLOBIN(myoglobin stores extra O₂)supported by cardiovascular system

entire cycle of contraction and relaxation

time between stimulus and contraction

sustained contraction of muscle fiber

maximum muscle tension can only be reached when actin and myosin overlap OPTIMALLY

• SLOW OXIDATIVE
• EX. long muscles of back
• "red fibers"-> red oxygen storing myoglobin
• aerobic(high oxygen)
• small
• least powerful
• contracts for longer periods of time before getting tired

• FAST GLYCOLYTIC
• EX. eye muscle
• "white fibers"->less myoglobin
• lower oxygen and lower blood supply
• large diameter more powerful
• tires quickly

• single motor neuron PLUS all muscle fibers controlled by that motor neuron
• the whole muscle is composed of MANY motor units
• as intensity of stimulation increases # of motor units increases until ALL motor units are active

increase in number of motor units activated to perform a task

continuous state of partial contraction

• muscle contracts but length does NOT change
• EX. holding an object but NOT moving it

muscle contracts and length DOES change

• isotonic
• muscle shortens
• EX. lifting a barbell in anotomic position(moving elbow) toward shoulder

• isotonic
• muscle lengthens
• EX. returning arm back to anotomical position lowering barbell back down

• muscles function in a group(single unit)
• rhythmicity and peristalsis
• EX. visceral smooth muscle->walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, respiratory/urinary/reproductive tracts

• fibers function independantly
• EX. eye and pilorector muscles, LARGE blood vessels

• actin and myosin don't shorten they slide past each other
• actin slides toward each other by the help of myosin

• actin is cover by tropomysin which must be moved out of the way for the myosin to be able to bind with the actin
• 1.Ca from sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to troponin
• 2.Ca and troponin pull tropomyosin aside and expose the troponin
• 3.crossbridge binds actin to myosin
• 4.myosin flexes when it touches actin -> ADP & P are released from myosin
• 5. ATP causes myosin to detach -> the ATP comes from mytochondria
• 6.energy of ATP resets head -> ATP turns to ADP & P as head resets
• *AFTER CONTRACTION THE CA2+ IS IMMEDIATELY COLLECTED*

without ATP the myosin head doesn't release from the actin and rigomortis occurs because muscles freeze in midcontraction