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A systematic difference between the adult target form and the child’s output form.
Phonological process or pattern:
e.g., your client says [tɑk] for sock, [du] for zoo, [pɔr] for four, and [beɪs] for vase.
We could write separate rules: /s/ for /t/, /z/ for /d/, /f/ for /p/, and /v/ for /b/.
Or we could write one rule for the entire class of phonemes:
In this case-- Stopping: A fricative is replaced with a stop with the same place of articulation and voicing.
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Three major categories of child phonological patterns
Syllable structure patterns;
Substitution patterns;
Assimilatory patterns
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Simplify the shape of the word in terms of the number of syllables OR the number of sounds per syllable.
Syllable structure pattern
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Replace one sound with another sound that might be easier to produce.
Substitution patterns
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Change a sound to be more similar to a nearby sound.
Assimilatory patterns
(Like assimilation in adult speech, but more extensive)
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Child speakers may truncate/shorten words with two or more syllables. Deleted syllables are generally unstressed.
e.g. /bǝlun/ balloon > [lun], not [bǝ].
e.g. /kӕndɪ/ candy > [kӕ], not [dɪ].
Weak syllable deletion
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Early in development (before 2;6), child might produce multisyllabic words with more than one copy of the same syllable.
e.g. bottle > [bɑbɑ]
Reduplication
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Young children may simplify a CVC syllable to simpler CV form.
e.g. /pɑp/ > [pɑ]
Final/coda consonant deletion
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One or more consonants are deleted from a string of multiple adjacent consonants (a consonant cluster).
e.g. /snoʊ/ > [noʊ], snow, /straɪp/ > [taɪp], stripe
Cluster reduction
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A fricative is replaced with a stop.
e.g. /sɑk/, sock > [tɑk]; /zu/, zoo > [du]
Stopping;
Resulting stop typically has same place of articulation as fricative.
Or the closest possible place: Interdental and postalveolar fricatives may be replaced with an alveolar stop, e.g. /ðɪs/ > [dɪs].
Remember to use a diacritic if voicing differs from original fricative.
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Place of articulation changes to more anterior position.
Fronting; two types:
Velar fronting: Velar consonants are fronted to alveolar place:
e.g. /kӕt/, cat > [tӕt]
Palatal fronting: Postalveolar fricatives/affricates are fronted to alveolar place:
e.g. /ʃu/, shoe > [su]
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Two types of assimilatory patterns
- Local: assimilation between two adjacent sounds:
- in gold > [ɪŋgoʊld]
- Nonlocal (consonant harmony): assimilation across one or more intervening sounds:
- ding > [gɪŋ]
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A velar consonant causes another consonant elsewhere in the word to take on a velar place of
articulation. Most common type.
e.g. /dɔg/, dog > [gɔg]; /kʌp/, cup > [kʌk]
Velar consonant harmony / velar assimilation;
- Can go in either direction; regressive (right-to-left)
- direction is more common.
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A labial consonant causes another consonant elsewhere in the word to take on a labial place of articulation.
e.g. /boʊt/, boat > [boʊp]
Labial consonant harmony / labial assimilation
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Two types of voicing assimilation (a local assimilation)
Prevocalic voicing: A voiceless consonant becomes voiced before a vowel. It assimilates in voicing to the following vowel:
e.g. /pɪg/, pig > [p̬ɪg] or [bɪg]
Final devoicing: A voiced word-final consonant becomes voiceless. It assimilates in voicing to the following silence:
e.g. /bӕd/, bad > [bӕd̥] or [bӕt]
Both are common processes, but difficult to detect because voiced-voiceless contrast can be ambiguous in child speech.
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Less typical patterns
Some children exhibit idiosyncratic patterns that are not regularly observed in children developing typically.
Glottal replacement: A consonant, usually a stop, is replaced with glottal stop. e.g. back > [bæʔ]
Backing: An alveolar or other anterior sound is replaced with a velar sound in the absence of another velar. e.g. tap > [kæp]
Initial consonant deletion, e.g. cut > [ʌt]
Stopping of glides, e.g. yes > [dɛs]
Spirantization: The reverse of stopping; a stop is replaced with a fricative. e.g. doll > [zɔl]
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A prevocalic consonant, usually a liquid (/l/ or /r/), is replaced with a glide (/w/ or /j/).
e.g. /ræbɪt/, rabbit > [wæbɪt]
Gliding
Not all children who misarticulate the /r/ sound have a true phonological pattern of gliding.
The sound the child produces may be a distorted (derhotacized) /r/ rather than a true /w/.
- Use a subscript‿ diacritic to transcribe distorted /r/
- sounds:
- rabbit > [r̮æbɪt]
- rip > [r̮ɪp]
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Vocalization or vowelization
Process similar to gliding, but affecting postvocalic liquids.
/ɚ/ and rhotic diphthongs lose their /r/-coloring.
Coda /l/ merges with preceding vowel.
Can result in a variety of vowels, including /ǝ/, /o/, /ɔ/.
- e.g. /snikɚ/, sneaker > [snikǝ]
- e.g. /hɔrs/ horse, > [hɔs]
- e.g. /kæsəl/ castle, > [kæsoʊ]
Especially common in words with syllabic /l/ or /r/.
Another widespread process that persists late into development.
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Review: Aspiration
Mark an aspirated voiceless stop with the superscript h.
Mark an unaspirated voiceless stop with the superscript =.
A voiceless stop is aspirated in the onset of a stressed syllable.
e.g. [p hit], Pete, [t hæp], tap
A voiceless stop is unaspirated after /s/.
e.g. [sp=un], spoon, [st=æmp], stamp, [əsk=eɪp], escape
- A voiceless stop is unaspirated in the onset of an
- unstressed sylllable.
e.g. [bæk=ʌp], backup, [thɪk= ɚ], ticker
Reminder: For a typical speaker, it generally is not necessary to mark detail about aspiration (can be predicted from context).
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