Physiology Test 4

• Slow Twitch Oxidation (Type I)
• Fast Twitch Oxidation-Glycolytic (Type IIa)
• Fast Twitch Flycolytic (Type IIb)

O2 binding pigment in red blood cells

O2 binding pigment in skeletal muscle

Myosin ATPase activity

• the degree to which a protein is attracted to its ligand
• myoglobin > hemoglobin

smaller diameter, darker color, fatigue resistant

large diameter, pale color, easily fatigued

• increasing muscle fiber diameter (increased # of myofibrils) = hypertrophy
• not muscle fiber # = hyperplasia

Skelatal < Cardiac < Smooth

• Single unit smooth muscle
• Multi unit smooth muscle

• Neuron stimulates cell then cell stimulates other cells through gap junctions
• EX - intestine, respiratory

• neurons have to respong with actual muscle cell
• EX - cilliary body in eye

• not sacromere-based
• much longer chains
• dense bodies - proteins that clamp down and hold bundles together

• Intracellular Ca++ concentrations increase when Ca++ enters cell and is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Ca++ binds to calmodulin (CaM)
• Ca++-calmodulin activates myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)
• MLCK phosphorylates light chains in myosin heads and increases myosin ATPase activity
• Active myosin crossbridges slide along actin and create muscle tension
• (Ca++ regulation of phosphorylation – no troponin)

• blood
• blood vessels
• heart

• Efficiently distribute oxygen, nutrients, ect to bodys cells
• remove wastes from these same cells (ex-CO2)
• important for thermoregulation

• Pulmonary circuit
• systemic circuit

blood flow between heart and lungs

blood flow between heart and rest of body

deoxygenated blood from systemic circuit - send to pulmonary circuit

oxygenated blood from systemic circuit - sends to systemic circuit

• foramen oval (fetus) - Fossa ovalis (born) b/w right and left atriums
• arterial duct (fetus) - aterial ligament (born) b/w pulmonary arteries and aorta

• contractions are the result of signals generated by the muscle itself (not external signals from the NS)
• cardiac muscle is myogenic

the ability to spontaneously produce action potentials in a periodic, repeatable manner

autorhythmic cells that synchronize the contractile cells in cardiac muscle

• sinoatrial (SA) node
• Atrioventicular (AV) node

• Functional unit of contraction = sarcomere
• Contractions occur via cross-bridge cycling

• Communication b/w cells by gap junctions
• long duration action potentials (2 vs 300)
• no summation of muscle contractions - prevents tetanus
• skeletal muscle fast twitch fiber: refractory period is short compared with time required for the development of tension
• Cardiac muscle fiber: refractory period lasts almost as long as the entire muscle twitch
• Skeletal muscles when stimulated repeatedly will have summation and tetanus
• Cardiac muscle: long refractory period prevents tetanus

• SA node depolarizes
• Electrical activity goes rapidly to AV node via intermodal pathways (top-down)
• Depolarization (or contraction) spreads more slowly across atria. Conduction slows through AV node because of the fibrous barrier.
• Depolarization moves rapidly through ventricular conducting system (b/w both ventricals) to the apex (bottom) of the heart
• Depolarization wave spreads upward from the apex (bottom- up)

• first small bump
• strial depolarization

• Second trianglular tower
• ventrial depolarization
• atrial polarization

• small bump after
• ventrical repolarization

60-100 beats/min

• abnormal
• sinus tachycardia

sinus bradycardia

• SA node failure
• associated with 15% of strokes due to blood clots
• looks like really fast heart beats

• loss of ventricle ability to pump blood
• very serious - leads to death in minutes
• looks like squiggles

• sudden loss of regular heartbeat
• loss of consciousness
• without intervention = death
• fabrillation = loss of synchronization

• myocarding infraction - inadequate O2 supply to the heart muscles
• preceded by pain
• lead to death
• no collateral circulation
• blockage = heart attack
• coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery

all events associated with the flow of blood through the heart during a single heartbeat

one complete cycle of atrial and ventricular contraction and relaxation

period of cardiac muscle contraction

period of cardiac muscle relaxation

systolic pressure over diastolic pressure

• number of ventricular contraction/min
• resting average: 70 beats/min

• amnt of blood pumped per ventricular contraction
• resting average = 70 mL

(heart rate) x (stroke volume)

• changes in heart rate
• changes in stroke volume

• force with which the ventricles contract
• depends on end-diastolic volume

• slows heart rate
• less action potentials
• ACh

• Speed up heart rate
• more action potentials
• norepinephrine

• force with which the ventricles contract
• changes in stroke volume depend on this

• transcription factor - protein that turns on/off other genes
• found in all vertebrates hearts
• different timing/activity levels
• congenital defect in ventricular septum
• experiments can produce 3 chambered heart

right atrium --> tricuspid valve --> right ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> capillaries (lungs) --> pulmonary vein --> left atrium --> mitral valve --> left ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta --> elastic arteries --> capillaries (exchange of material w/cells) --> venules --> expandable veins --> venae cavae --> back to right atrium

a hollow opeing though which blood flows

• conduct blood away from heart
• elastic and fibrous connective tissue
• smooth muscle
• can withstand higher blood pressures

• smaller than arteries
• blood from arteries to capillaries
• small amnt of connective tissue
• large amnt of smooth muscle

• smallest blood vessel
• most numerous
• no muscle or connective tissue
• lumen formed by epithelial tissue
• single cell layer
• function: exchange of materials (nutrients, wastes) b/w cells and blood

• conduct blood to the heart
• large lumens (thin walls)
• less connective tissue and smooth muscle than arteries
• lower blood pressure than arteries
• peripheral veins (outside thoracic cavity) contain on-way valves
• some exchange with cells occurs

• smaller than veins
• blood form capillaries to veins
• little connective tissue and smooth muscle
• some exchange with cells occurs

• Erythrocytes
• lack nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes
• function: transport O₂ and CO₂

• 4 protein globin chains centered around a heme group
• two alpha chains and two beta chains
• Heme group consists of a porphyrin ring with an iron atom in the center

• fragmetns of bone marrow cells that broke off
• smaller than erythrocytes
• less numerous
• importan in blood clot formation

• Thrombus (blood clot) formation
• 1. vasoconstriction - paracrine release
• 2a. platelet plug - inactive - active
• 2b. coagulation (fibrinogen - fibrin) - clot formation ((need anticoagulants to help prevent infarcts))
• 3. vessel repair - clot dissolves (plasmin)

tissue deprived of blood by inappropriate clot

lack factor XII - still clot

lack intrinsic pathway - still clot

when a feature that evolved under a set of conditions becomes used for additional or different purposes

substance that triggers immune response

• Nov 2002 - hit china first
• w/in 8 weeks --> 3 cont, 24 contries
• 774 deaths

studies physiological defenses by which the body distinguishes self from non self

• protection agianst diseas causing invaders (pathogens)
• isolate or remove non microbial foreign substances
• recognize/remove abnormal cells

• viruses - nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat (dependent on host)
• bacteria - prokaryotes (can live outside of host)

blood, lymph, and tissues

leukocytes

• white blood cells
• purple dots all over
• % = rare
• function: release chemial taht mediate inflammation and allergic response

• white blood cells
• purple smudge - looks like C in the center of cell
• % - 50-70%
• function: ingest and destroy invaders (blood)

• white blood cell
• orange with purple blob C in the middle
• % - 1-3 %
• function: destroy invaders, particularly antibody-coated parasites

• white blood cell
• larger blue with purple circle in the center
• % - 1-6%
• function: ingest and destroy invaders; antegin presentation (tissue)

• blue with large purple circle and purple lines around purple circle
• % - 20-35%
• function: specific responses to invaders, including antibody production

• starfish like
• function: to recognize pathogens and activate other immune cells by antigen presentation

• passive flow
• one way valves
• returns to venous circulation at right and left lymph ducts
• - thymus gland
• - bone marrow

• lymph node artery and vein (top)
• efferent lymph vessel - top vessel
• afferent lymph vessel - bottom vessel
• capsule - outer shell
• clusters of immune cells intercept pathogens that invade interstitial fluid

• Innate (non specific) immunity
• Acquired (specific) immunity

work agianst foreign bodies by binding to antigens

• IgG - 75% - blood plasma - secondary immune response
• IgA - external secretions (saliva, tears)
• IgE - allergic respnses
• IgM - primary immune - blood group antigens
• IgD - associated w/ IgM's but unclear still

• Incorrect response - auoimmune diseases (failure to distinguish self from non self) ex) diabetes
• Overactive response - allergies (response out of proportion to threat posed)
• No response - immunodeficiencies (primary - genetic defect / acquired - infection)

woman like men with gens different from thiers

• internal respiratory (cellular)
• external respiratory (breathing)

• pulmonary ventilation - inspiration/ expiration
• exchange of O2 and CO2
• transportation O2 and Co2 (blood)
• Exchange of O2 and CO2 (blood - cells)

• vocalization
• defense against pathogens
• help in maintaining body pH
• dissipating water and heat

Larynx (vocal cords) --> trachea --> primary bronchi --> smaller bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli

• Type 1 alveolar cell - gas exchange (cells that make up the circles)
• Type II - secrete surfactant - keeps cell lubricated for movement (random yellow blobs)
• Endothelial cell of capillary (larger read cells around capillary)
• Alveolar macrophage - ingest foreign material (purple blobs)

• Air pressure gradient b/w atmosphere and alveoli
• airway resistance (diameter)
• bronchoconstriction
• bronchodialation