English

• a reference to an historical event, text, person etc.
• outside the text

a means of argument through the use of comparison

• Forensic (about the past),
• Deliberative (about the future),
• Epideictic/Ceremonial (about the present)

the specific, identifiable ‘reader’ an author directs his/her argument toward

• expert testimony other than the author’s used to validate and support his/her claims

unexamined beliefs

by synonym; by example (or ostensive); stipulative definitions

• ethical appeal or the author’s credibility: established by
• 1). Demonstrating knowledge of the subject;
• 2). Establishing common ground with the audience and
• 3). Considering opposing points of view; demonstrating fairness

a conclusion about the unknown based on the known

logical appeal

emotional appeal; arguments from the heart

the dynamic driven by the context in which an argument takes place, ie., the relationship between the author (and his or her purpose), subject, and audience

• a means of investigating/analyzing a particular argument employing four basic questions
• 1.Did something happen (arguments of fact)?
• 2.What is the nature of the thing (arguments of definition)?
• 3.What is the quality of the thing (arguments of evaluation)?
• 4. What actions should be taken (proposal arguments)?

• a form of reasoning with a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion that follows exclusively from the parameters of the two premises: it must be both valid (in its structure) and true (in the content of its premises)
• EX: All humans are mortal
• Socrates is a human
• Socrates is mortal.

• author’s rhetorical intention; what he or she is attempting to accomplish
• Cicero’s three major purposes: to delight, to teach, to move

• drawing general conclusions from specific observations (only probably
• true)

• syllogistic reasoning that draws a specific
• conclusion from stated premises (see syllogism)

stated opinion

the main point of an essay

topic of an essay

the author’s self representation in an essay