AP%20Biology.csv

anything takes up space and has mass

substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance

an element indispensable for life but required in extremely minimum amounts

smallest unit of matter that retains property of an element

an electrically neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom

a subatomic particle with single positive charge found in nucleus of an atom

a subatomic particle with a single negative charge; one or more electrons move around the nucleus

one of several atomic forms of an element each containing different number of neutrons and different in atomic mass

the electrons in the outermost electron shell

an attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atom; the bonded atoms gain compounds outer electron shells

a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons

a type of covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. the shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom. making one slightly negative and the other slightly positive

the attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond

a negatively charged ion

an ion with a positive charge produced by the loss of one or more electrons

a type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecules is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent in another bond

the binding together of like molecules often by hydrogen bonds

the attraction between different kinds of molecules

a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. It is energy in most random form

a measure of the intensity of heat in degrees reflecting molecules average kinetic energy

the amount of heat that must be absorbed lost for one gram of a substance to change its temperature by one degree

a homogeneous mixture of two or more substance (liquid)

dissolving agent of a solution

a substance that is dissolved in a solution

a solution in which water is the solvent

a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

having an affinity to water

having aversion to water tend to coalesce and form droplets of water

A measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to –log [H+] and ranging in value from 0 to 14.

A substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution.

"Rain

The study of carbon compounds (organic compounds).

An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.

"One of several organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties. The three types are structural

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms.

Molecules that are mirror images of each other.

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.

A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.

A functional group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.

An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton.

An organic compound with a carbonyl group of which the carbon atom is bonded to two other carbons.

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.

"A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution

A functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (—SH).

A functional group important in energy transfer.

"A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.

"A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

"A chemical process that lyses

A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).

"The simplest carbohydrate

"A double sugar

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

"A structural polysaccharide of cell walls

A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.

"A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds

A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

"A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.

"A polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

constructed from glycerol and fatty acids

An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins.

A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.

"The covalent bond between two amino acid units

"One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth

"For proteins

"A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A)

"A double-stranded

"A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and

One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.

"One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Cytosine (C)

"One of several formed bodies with specialized functions

"A microscope that focuses an electron beam through a specimen

The disruption of a cell and separation of its organelles by centrifugation.

A machine that spins test tubes at the fastest speeds to separate liquids and particles of different densities.

The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.

A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.

"The entire contents of the cell

"The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier

"(1) An atom's central core

A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus.

"The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing

A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis.

A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.

"One of a family of closely related plant organelles

"A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction

"A membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell

An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration.

An organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.

"(plural

"A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast

A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis

The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

"A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen

"A network of microtubules

"Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells

"A long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion

"A short cellular appendage specialized for locomotion

"A globular protein that links into chains

"A protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells

The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded consisting of protein and polysaccharides.

"A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers

"A threadlike

"A specialized structure in the nucleus

"A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.

"An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells

A protein covalently attached to a carbohydrate.

"An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify

A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.

A membrane-enclosed bag of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

"A type of endocytosis involving large

(the ability to allow some sub. to cross the plasma membrane more easily) A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

"The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure

Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.

Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.

The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.

"An increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across their membranes. When a gradient exists

The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane

"In comparing two solutions

"In comparing two solutions

Having the same solute concentration as another solution.

"The control of water balance in organisms living in hypertonic

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Firm. Walled cells become turgid as a result of the entry of water from a hypotonic environment.

"Limp. Walled cells are limp in isotonic surroundings

A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment

"The spontaneous passage of molecules and ions

(water channel proteins that facilitate the amount of diffusion)A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane (osmosis).

A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.

The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.

A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.

"The diffusion gradient of an ion

"An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that consumes ATP to force hydrogen ions out of a cell and

"The coupling of the ""downhill"" diffusion of one substance to the ""uphill"" transport of another against its own concentration gradient."

The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.

The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.

"A type of endocytosis involving large

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

An ion transport protein generating voltage across the membrane.

"chromatin

organization of DNA and proteins into fibrous material

"specialized structure in special type of RNA

double membrane perforated by pores which regulate entry and exit of certain macromolecules and particles

"use info

suspended in cytosol which will function in cytosol (ex:enzymes)

attached to outside of ER or nuclear envelope- proteins that are destined for insertion into membranes or packaging certain organelles (ex: lysosome)

network of membrane sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes

"synthesis of lipids

sythesis of secretory proteins (glycoproteins) specialized cells secrete proteins produced by rough ER ribosomes and membrane production

"center of manufacturing

"golgi appartus--> usually located near the ER a vesicle that buds from the ER will add its membrane and the contents of its lumen

golgi apparatus--> gives rise to vesicles which pinch off and travel to other sites

digestive compartments (macromolecules) carry out intracellular digestion . Use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's own organic material (autophagy)

"sites of cellular respiration the catbolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars

sites of photosynthesis. convert solar energy--> chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO2 and H20

generate and degrade H2O2 in performing various metabolic functions transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen and they produce H2O2. Use O to break fatty acids that can be sent to mitochondria

organizing the structures and activities of cells

maintenance of cell shape (compression resisting girders) cell motility organelle and chromosome movement

actin (tension bearing elements ) muscle contraction

"anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles

region where cells microtubules are initiated

composed of nine sets of triplet microtubule arrange in a ring

"function in support

membranes of neighboring cells are actually fused forming continuous belts around cell to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid

function like rivets fastening cells together into strong sheets Intermediate filaments reinforce this

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells

Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions .

The arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological membranes is described by the

"splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. When a freeze-fracture preparation is viewed with an electron microscope

"are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all. Instead

"penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer

"1. Transport of specific solutes into or out of cells. 2. Enzymatic activity

the ability of a cell to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another is crucial to the functioning of an organism carbohydrates are important for this

span the membrane 1. channel proteins which have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel through the membrane (aquaporins facilitate the passage of water through the membrane) 2. carrier proteins bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane

the tendency of molecules of any substance to spread out in the available space it is driven by intrinsic kinetic energy (thermal motion or heat) of molecules

the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane because it require no energy from the cell to make it happen - the concentration gradient represents potential energy and drives fusion

an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area -->substances tend to move form where there are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated

the passive transport of water; diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; the direction of osmosis is determined only by a difference in total solute concentration ; the kind of solutes in the solution do not matter

the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient via transport proteins

many ion channels function as gated channels these channels open or close depending on the presence or absence of a chemical or physical stimulus

uses energy to move solutes against their gradients; requires the cell to expend metabolic energy; enables a cell to maintain its internal concentrations of small molecules that would otherwise diffuse across he membrane ; ATP supplies the energy for active transport

ATP can power active transport by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to the transport protein. This may induce a conformation change in the transport proteins translocating the solute across the membrane

actively maintains the gradient of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) across the plasma membrane of animal cells . K+ concentration is low outside animal cell and high inside the cell. Na+ concentration is high outside an animal cell and low inside the cell. the sodium potassium pump maintains these concentration gradients using the energy of one ATP to pump three Na+ out and two K+ in

electrical potential energy due to the separation of opposite charges

voltage across a membrane. ranges from -50 to -200 millivolts. inside of cell negative compared to the outside

drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane 1. chemical force based on an ions concentration gradient. 2. the other is an electrical force based on the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement ion diffuses down its electrochemical gradient

special transport proteins that generate the voltage gradient across a membrane an example is the Na+-K+ pump restores the electrochemical gradient not only by the active transport of Na+ and K+ setting up a concentration gradien but because it pumps 2 K+ for every 3 Na+ setting up a voltage across membrane

in plants bacteria and fungi it is the major electrogenic pump actively transporting H+ out of the cell

a single ATP powered pump that transports one solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in this mechanism as the solute that has been actively transported diffuses back passively through a transport protein its movement can be coupled with the active transport of another substance against its concentration gradient

the cell engulfs a particle by extending psedopodia around it and packaging it in a large vacuole

a cell creates a vesicle around a droplet of extracellular fluid

(1) The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. See first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics. (2) A phenomenon in which external DNA is taken up by a cell and functions there.

"The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed

"The principle whereby every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat

"A quantitative measure of disorder or randomness

The portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature is uniform throughout the system.

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy

A nonspontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings

An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.

"In cellular metabolism

"A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes

A chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start.

The reactant on which an enzyme works

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.

"A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site

The specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds.

"The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate

Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.

An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function in important metabolic reactions.

A specific receptor site on some part of an enzyme molecule remote from the active site.

A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.

"A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product

"The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP

A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction

The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

The addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction.

The electron donor in a redox reaction.

The electron acceptor in a redox reaction.

a coenzyme present in all cells that helps enzymes transfer electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

"The splitting of glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis is the one metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells

A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain.

The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.

The entry compound for the Krebs cycle in cellular respiration; formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.

"An iron-containing protein

"A cluster of several membrane proteins found in the mitochondrial crista (and bacterial plasma membrane) that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent electron transport chains

"The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient

"Containing oxygen; referring to an organism

"Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism

The conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.

The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions.

A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments which enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA.

An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from the oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones.

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

"A green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants. Chlorophyll a can participate directly in the light reactions

The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

"The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

"The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions)

An acceptor that temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions.

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

"The distance between crests of waves

The entire spectrum of radiation ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer.

"That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum detected as various colors by the human eye

"A quantum

An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.

The range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light.

A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions.

A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.

A profile of the relative performance of different wavelengths of light.

"An accessory pigment

"The chlorophyll a molecule and the primary electron acceptor in a photosystem; they trigger the light reactions of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll donates an electron

A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the chlorophyll a molecule; it accepts an electron from the chlorophyll a molecule.

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P700 reaction-center chlorophyll.

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll.

"A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP

A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.

A loosely arranged photosynthetic cell located between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface.

"A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism

The production of ATP by noncyclic electron flow.

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen

The generation of ATP by cyclic electron flow.

"Ribulose carboxylase

"A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material

"A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen

"A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds

reproduction of cells

"sequence of events in the life of a cell

complete complement of organisms genes; genetic material

gene carrying structure found in nucleus- consists of 1 very long DNA molecules and associated proteins

any cell in multicellular organism except an egg or sperm

sex cells (haploid cells; egg or sperm) unite to form a diploid zygote

complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome

replicated forms of chromosomes joined together by the centromere and separated during mitosis and meiosis II

centralized region that joins the two sister chromatids

"nuclear division process; prophase

the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells after mitosis

a two stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organims that results in cells with half the chromosomes number of the original cells

phase of cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokenisis

"period when cell cycle when cell is not dividing- cell metabolic activity is high

"first growth phase of the cell cycle

the second growth face of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs

synthesis phase of cell cycle; portion of interphase which DNA is replicated

the first subphase of mitosis in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begins to form but the nucleolus and nucleus are still in intact

a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell between which the new cell wall forms during cytokenisis

"The second subphase of mitosis

3rd subphase in mitosis; spindle is complete and the chromosomes attached to microtubules at their kinetochores are aligned at he metaphase plate

fourth subphase of mitosis in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell

the fifth and final subphase of mitosis in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokenisis actually begins

an assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis

a specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle

prokaryotes cell division . Each daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome

cytokenisis process; pinching of the plasma membrane; the succession of rapid cell division without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cell

a cyclically operating set of molecultes in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle

a non dividing face of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins

a regularity protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically

a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells

any factor that has a greater impact on a population as the population increases

the conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell.

"a mass of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue

a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin

cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair function of one or more organs

the spread of cancer to locations distant form original site

"A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

Differences between members of the same species.

The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation.

A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.

A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.

"(1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage

The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.

Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.

"A method of organizing the chromosomes of a cell in relation to number

"Chromosome pairs of the same length

The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during synapsis of meiosis I.

One of the pair of chromosomes responsible for determining the sex of an individual

A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).

The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.

"A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)

A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell.

"A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form

The multicellular diploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations that results from a union of gametes and that meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation.

The multicellular haploid form in organisms undergoing alternation of generations that mitotically produces haploid gametes that unite and grow into the sporophyte generation.

The pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

"A paired set of homologous chromosomes

"The X-shaped

A heritable feature.

A characteristic

Plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate.

"The mating

The parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance; P stands for parental.

"The first filial

Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.

"In a heterozygote

"In a heterozygote

"A phenotypic situation in which the two alleles affect the phenotype in separate

A type of inheritance in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.

"Mendel's first law

A diagram used in the study of inheritance to show the results of random fertilization.

Having two identical alleles for a given trait.

Having two different alleles for a given genetic character

The physical and physiological traits of an organism.

The genetic makeup of an organism

"An organism that is heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest. A monohybrid results from a cross between parents homozygous for different alleles. For example

"Mendel's second law

A type of inheritance in which F1 hybrids have an appearance that is intermediate between the phenotypes of the parental varieties

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

A phenomenon in which one gene alters the expression of another gene that is independently inherited

A heritable feature in a population that varies continuously as a result of environmental influences and the additive effect of two or more genes (polygenic inheritance).

An additive effect of two or more gene loci on a single phenotypic character.

A family tree describing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring across as many generations as possible.

A genetic disorder that occurs in people with two copies of a certain recessive allele; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.

A human genetic disease of red blood cells caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; it is the most common inherited disease among African Americans.

"A technique for determining genetic abnormalities in a fetus by the presence of certain chemicals or defective fetal cells in the amniotic fluid

A basic principle in biology stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.

An individual with the normal phenotype.

A gene located on a sex chromosome.

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.

Genes that are located on the same chromosome.

The general term for the production of offspring with new combinations of traits inherited from the two parents.

Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.

"A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes. The greater the frequency of recombination between two genetic markers

Charts of chromosomes that locate genes with respect to chromosomal features.

"A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele

"An accident of meiosis or mitosis

"A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome

"A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome

A chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets.

An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens; duplication of a portion of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome.

"An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or from mutagens; specifically

"A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells

(1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.

A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage. See phage.

"The form of native DNA

Sites where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.

An enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.

The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' 3' direction.

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in a direction away from the replication fork.

A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 39 end of a new DNA fragment to the 59 end of a growing chain.

An already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis.

An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.

A team of enzymes that hydrolyze DNA and RNA into their component nucleotides

The cellular process that uses special enzymes to fix incorrectly paired nucleotides.

A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.

"The protective structure at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome. Specifically

The synthesis of RNA on a DNA template.

"A type of RNA

"The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of ""language"" from nucleotides to amino acids"

"Modification of RNA before it leaves the nucleus

An initial RNA transcript; also called pre-mRNA.

A set of three-nucleotide-long words that specify the amino acids for polypeptide chains.

The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript.

A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.

"A special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule

"unit

The removal of noncoding portions (introns) of the RNA molecule after initial synthesis.

"A noncoding

"A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons

"A complex assembly that interacts with the ends of an RNA intron in splicing RNA

"A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules

"A taxonomic category above the kingdom level. The three domains are Archaea

An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA.

A specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.

"The most abundant type of RNA

An aggregation of several ribosomes attached to one messenger RNA molecule.

A change in a gene at a single nucleotide pair

A point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides.

"The most common type of mutation

"A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.

(1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

"The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped

A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.