P.E

• Found in limbs
• levers for movement
• greater length than width
• mostly compact bone

Tibia, humerus, radius

• Very strong but less movement
• nearly equal in length and width
• spongy with an outer layer of hard bone

phalanges, carpals, tarsals

• usually thin
• two layers of compact bone covering a thin layer of spongy bone
• provide protection
• large area for muscle attachment
• cranium, scapula, sternum, ribs

• protection and support
• vertebrae, pubis

Calcium and phosphorous

• rigid supportive structure
• skull, vertebral column

• Support
• protection
• movement
• storage of minerals
• production of red blood cells

• immoveable
• tough fibres hold bones together
• cranium

• partly moveable
• cartilage joins bones together
• ribs, sternum, vertebrae

• move freely
• characterised by synovial fluid
• 6 types of synovial joints

• 1 axis
• only flexion and extension
• knee, elbow

• linear movement
• surfaces slide against each other
• intercarpal/tarsal joints, sternum, clavicle

• bi-axial
• flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
• wrist

• bi-axial
• flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
• base of thumb

• movement in any direction
• shoulder, hip

• moves around circular axis
• neck

• white slippery surface at the end of the bones
• protects bones where it forms a joint
• reduces friction of the joint

• strong fibrous tissues
• join bone to bone

• found inside joint capsule
• reduces friction
• lubricates end of bone allowing easier movement

• connect muscle to bone
• thick strong fibres

• tough, flexible connective tissue
• no blood or nerve supply of it's own
• smooth and elastic
• shock absorption

• any muscles attatched to skeleton
• striated appearence
• voluntary muscle
• creates movement by pulling on bones to which they are attached

• found in digestive system and walls of other vital organs
• involuntary muscles

• muscles that control the heart
• involuntary

above or proximal

below or distal

further from the midline of the body

nearer to the midline of the body

• when muscles contract or shorten and pull on bones to create movement
• one muscle contracts to create movement so its partner must stretch to allow the bone to move

muscle creating movement

muscle that relaxes and allows the bone to move

when the bicep muscle pulls upwards on the forearm, the triceps need to relax to allow the movement to occur

change in muscle length

muscle shortens

muscle lengthens

• creates force without change in muscle length
• most forceful type of contraction
• causes muscles to tire quickly

• forces muscles to work at a constant rate
• only possible with the use of expensive equipment

• O₂ is breathe in through nasal cavity
• travels down pharynx, larynx and trachea
• divides into two bronchi => bronchioles
• exchange of gases occur in alveoli
• oxygenated blood is pumped around body
• CO₂ is breathed out lungs

• alveoli allow oxygen breathed in to pass through the microscopically thin walls and into the red blood cells of the capillaries
• CO2 passes through alveoli and is breathed out through the lungs

maximum amount of air that you can breathe out after maximum inhalation

amount of air inspired and expired each breath

the amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation

max amount of oxygen that your body can use over 1 minute

• breathing in
• diaphragm contracts and pulls down on rib cage
• this expands volume of chest
• air pressure in chest decreases causing air to be sucked in

• breathing out
• occurs when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
• this squeezes the air out of the lungs

• controlled by the central nervous system
• brain decides how much oxygen is needed to function properly

equipment used to measure blood pressure

• cardiac output
• amount of blood pumped out each minute

• stroke volume
• amount of blood pumped out each beat

• Heart rate
• number of heart beats per minute

• respiration rate
• amount of breaths per minute

• Sex: females have higher HR
• age and body size: younger people have higher HR
• fitness: fitter people have lower HR
• body position: lying down gives a lower HR
• food digestion: when digesting food you will have a higher HR

• higher cardiac output
• higher stroke volume
• higher heart rate
• higher respiration rate
• more blood flow to muscles

• higher cardiac output
• lower stroke volume
• lower heart rate
• increased size of left ventricle
• stronger muscles
• lower respiration rate

• left atrium
• left ventricle
• aorta
• arteries
• capillaries
• exchange of gases
• veins
• superior/inferior vena cava(s)
• right atrium
• right ventricle
• pulmonary artery
• lungs
• exchange of gases
• pulmonary vein

• Red blood cells
• white blood cells
• plasma
• platelets

• oxygen carrying pigment present in RBCs
• Carries 02 to body tissue

• body's defence system
• fights infection
• builds up immune system
• absorb and digest disease causing organisms

cells which help form blood clots

• clear, yellowish fluid
• carries nutrients to boyd
• transports waste products
• 90% water

• Radial pulse (wrist)
• carotid pulse (neck)
• femoral pulse (groin)
• temporal pulse (temple)