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Antagonist
- Chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
- - Ex: the drug Curare (Muscles are unable to move.)
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Agonist
- Chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
- -Ex: Nicotine
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Adaptation
An inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged.
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Fitness
Refers to the reproductive success (# of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.
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Hormones
- "Messengers"
- - the chemical substances released by the endocrine glands
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Split-Brain surgery
Bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus calliosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.
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Prefrontal Cortex
- Portion of the frontal lobe, to the front of the motor cortex
- - reasoning about relations between objects and events.
- - to certain types of decision making
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The cerebral hemispheres
- The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
- - separated in the center of the brain by the longitudinal fissure.
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Cerebral Cortex
The outer layer of the brain, the part that looks like a cauliflower
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Cerebrum
The seat of complex thought
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Reticular formation
- Contributes to the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception
- - best known for the regulation of sleep and wakefulness
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Electrical Stimulation of the brain (ESB)
Involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
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Lesioning
- Involves destroying a piece of the brain.
- - procedure involves inserting an electrode into a brain structure and passing a high-frequency electric current through it to burn the tissue and disable the structure.
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Efferent Nerve Fibers
Axons that carry info outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body
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Afferent Nerve Fibers
Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body
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Endorphins
Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects
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Postsynaptic Potential (PSP)
- A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane.
- -graded, vary in size and increase/decrease the probability of a neural impulse in the receiving cell in proportion to the amount of voltage change.
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Excitatory PSP
Positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.
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Inhibitory PSP
Negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.
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Reuptake
- Process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.
- - allows synapes to recycle their materials
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Postsynaptic neuron
The neuron that receives the signal
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Presynaptic neuron
The neuron that sends a signal across the gap
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Absolute Refractory
- Minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
- - Not long only 1 or 2 milliseconds
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Action Potential
Very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon.
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The resting potential of a neuron
- its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
- -charge is about -70 millivolts
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Synaptic Pruning
a key process in the formation of the neural networks that are crucial to communication in the nervous system.
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CT scan
- (Computerized tomography)
- -a Computer-enhanced x-ray of brain structure
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fMRI
- (Functional magnetic resonance imaging)
- - Monitors blood and oxygen flow in the brain to identify areas of high activity.
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PET scan
- uses radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain
- -provides color-coded map indicating which areas of the brain become active when subjects clench their first, sing, or contemplate the mysteries of the universe.
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TMS
- (transcranial magnetic stimulation)
- -technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.
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Neurotransmitters
- Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
- - within these buttons; most of these chemicals are stored in small sacs, called Synaptic Vesicles.
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The Limbic System
Loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas
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Occipital Lobe
- -Back of the head
- The cortical area where most visual signals are send and visual processing is begun.
- - this area is called the primary visual cortex
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Parietal Lobe
- -Forward of the occipital lobe
- Includes the area that registers the sense of touch, called the primary somatosensory Cortex
- - also involved in integrating visual input and in monitoring the body's position in space
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Temporal Lobe
- -Lies below the parietal lobe
- Contains an area devoted to auditory processing the primary auditory cortex
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Frontal Lobe
- -Largest lobe in the human brain.
- contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex
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The endocrine system
- Consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning
- - long-term regulation of basic bodily processes.
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Somatic Nervous System
is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
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Autonomic Nervous System
is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
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The cerebellum
- is a relatively large and deeply folded structure located adjacent to the back surface of the brainstem.
- - Coordination of movement and critical to the sense of equilibrium (physical balance)
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The midbrain
- Segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain
- - contains area concerned with integrating sensory processes; vision and hearing
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The Forebrain
- Largest and most complex region of the brain; encompassing a variety of structures, including the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic system, and Cerebrum
- -1-4 form the core of the forebrain
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Thalamus
A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.
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Hypothalamus
- Structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs.
- -lies beneath the thalamus
- -controls the autonomic nervous system
- - regulation of basic biological drives related to survival; fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating.
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Chromosomes
Threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic Acid) molecules that carry genetic information.
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Genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission
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The Pons
- Includes bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum.
- - also contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
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The Medulla
- Attaches to the spinal cord
- - has charge of unconcious but essential functions, such as breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating circulation.
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Synapse
- Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
- - the points at which neurons interconnect
- -region where nerve impulses are transmitted and received
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Glia
- Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons
- -smaller than neurons
- -account for over 50% of the brains volume
- -provide insulation around many axon
- -play role in orchestrating the development of the nervous system
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Multiple Sclerosis
Due to a degeneration of myelin sheaths
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Terminal Buttons
- Small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.
- (serve as messengers that may activate neighboring neurons)
- -the axon ends in a cluster of terminal buttons
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Myelin Sheath
- Insulating material that encases some axon.
- -axon being a pipe and myelin sheath being the insulation around it.
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Dendrites
- Parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
- -info flows into the cell body and then travels away from the Soma along the axon
- -like branches off the end of trees!
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Axon
- a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma (cell body) to other neurons or to muscles or glands
- -the pipe!
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Neurons
Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information
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Soma
- Cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
- (nucleus)
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MRI scan
- (magnetic resonance imaging)
- uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancements to map out brain structure
- - produces 3-dimensional pictures
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Parkinson's Disease
The degeneration of such neurons apparently causes it, a neurological illness marked by tremors, muscular rigidity, and reduced control over voluntary movement.
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Corpus Callosum
- Major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.
- - thick band of fibers
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The Pituitary Gland
Releases a great variety of hormones that fan out within the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands.
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The Peripheral Nervous System
is made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord
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The Central Nervous System
- Consists of the brain and the spinal Cord.
- - lies within the skull and spinal column.
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The Hindbrain
Includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons.
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