Biology

Discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA in some viruses)

Alternative versions of a gene that produce distinguishable phenotypic effects

Reproduction, growth and development, tissue renewal

Reduces the number of sets of chromosomes in gametes counterbalancing the doubling that occurs at fertilization

Kinetochore microtubules attach to kinetochore and non kinetochores elongate the cell during division

• Cell grows-G1
• Copies chromosomes-S
• Completes prep for cell division-G2
• Divides-M

• Prophase- centrosomes/centrioles and spindle fibers
• Prometaphase- kinetochore and nonkinetochore
• Metaphase- chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
• Anaphase- sister chromatids separate by shortening of kinetochore microtubules at the kinetochores where motor molecules reside
• Telophase- reversal of prophase

G1 checkpoint where cell receives go ahead to complete G1,S, G2 and M phases and divide and if it doesnt receive go ahead it will exit and switch to non dividing state called G0

• Pro-folding of chromosomes
• Prometa-kinetochore and non microtubules
• Meta-chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
• Ana-sister chromatids separate by shortening of kinetochore microtubules at the kinetochores where motor molecules reside
• Telo-reversal of prophase

Generation of offspring from single parent that occurs without fussion of gametes. Offspring are genetically identical to parent.

Chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome

Chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual like X and Y

Discovered basic principles of heredity by breeding pea plants

Discovered location of gene that causes huntingtons disease (affects muscle coordination)

Associated specific genes with specific chromosomes

Discovered X chromosomes can sometimes be inactive

• Cell plate- double membrane across midline of dividing plant cell between which new cell wall forms during citokinesis
• Cleavage furrow- first sign of cleavage in animal cell, a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate

• Phenotype- physical and physiological traits of an organism which are determined by its genetic makeup
• Genotype- genetic makeup or set of alleles of an organism

23

Sperm and egg

46

somatic cells- any cell with two chromosome sets

2n-1, 2n+1

Down syndrome

Klinefelter syndrome and turner syndrome

cri du chat (cry of the cat)

chronic myelogenous leukemia

Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle-Cell, tay sachs

Huntingtons disease, extra toes or fingers, dwarfism

o blood, no freckles, no allergies, blue eyes, small eyes normal hands

freckels, allergies, green eyes, big eyes, webbed toes

Dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in cells of female mammals representing a highly condensed inactivated x chromosome

Structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells important during cell division and functions as a microtubule organizing center and has two centrioles

Cytoplasm

• Chromatin is the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing chromatin exists in its dispersed form as a mass of very long thin fibers
• Chromosomes are cellular structures carrying genetic material found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, each one consist of very long DNA molecules and proteins

Method of asexual reproduction by division in half. In prokaryotes it does not involve mitosis but in eukaryotes it does

Crossing over

2

Diploid

3

Haploid

4

Haploid

Purple plant

Purple and white flowered offspring

White plant

The condition in which genes are present only once in the genotype and not in pairs

Imaginary plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located

Microtubular structures that extend from the centrioles and attach to the centromere of a chromosome during mitosis and meiosis

Heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest

Heterozygous with respect to two genes of interest

Heterozygous with respect to three genes of interest

Breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype

Red snapdragons crossed with white ones

MN blood group

• Gamete- haploid reproductive cell like egg or sperm, unite during sexual reproduction to produce diploid zygote
• Somatic- multicellular organism except sperm or egg

Chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets It is result of accident of cell division

Additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character like skin color

Genes have multiple phenotypic effects like pleiotropic alleles in cystic fibrosis or sickle cell disease

Cross is when a flower can pollinate another and self is when it can pollinate itself

two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes

Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation

ABO blood type

A gene from one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus. Mouse is homosygous recessive for the second locus the coat is white regardless of black and brown locus

Independent assortment of chromosomes, random fertilization, crossing over during prophase 1.

Display of chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape shows there are 2 chromosomes of each 23 types

• Deletion- A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage; A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene
• Inversion- reattachment of a chromosomal fragment in a reverse orientation to the chromosome from which it originated
• Reciprocal translocation- attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome
• Duplication- fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome such that a portion of chromosome is duplicated

Due to recessive allele like color blindness

Color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Hemophilia

Body color, wing size

Eye color, hair color

genes located close enough together on a chromosome that they tend to be inherited together

Cyclin is cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulationg the cell cycle and Cdks is protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin look at figure 12.17

A protein must be present in the extracellular environment for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells; a local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation

Benign is mass of abnormal cells that remain at the site of its origin, cancer cells divide and invade other tissues, mestasis spreads distances away from origin

Crowded cells stop dividing. Transformed cells have this character.

Requirement that a cell must be attached to a substratum in order to divide. Normal cells have it.

Pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One inherited from father and one from mother.

Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attaached to eachother by proteins at the centromere and sometimes along arms. Make up one chromosome while joined and chromatids eventally seperate during mitosis or meiosis 2.

Specialized region of the chromosome where two sister chromatids are most closely attached

Phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors

Range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype due to environmental influences

Ultrasound, aminiocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, fetoscopy. Ultrasound has least risk.

Expression of allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent

Wildtype is an indivdual with phenotype most commonly observed in natural populations and mutant is trait that is alternative to wildtype because they are due to alleles assumed to have orginated as changes or mutations in the wildtype allele

Extra ones are deactivated/inactive.