-
Group living offered many advantages such as?
increased safety in presence of danger, cooperation with others, to complete challenging tasks, and rearing children
-
today we work hard to maintain our relationships, going so far as to modify our behavior when we are in the presence of others. Two examples?
- social facilitation: presence of others improves our performance. (depend on the situation or task at hand, how easy or difficult the task is, and how excited you are)
- social loafing: occurs when the presence of others causes one to relax one's standards and slack off
-
societal or culturally impose rules about acceptable behavior are called ___. (vary by culture)
social norms
-
___ occurs when people adjust their behavior to what others are doing or adhere to the norms of their culture
conformity
-
Two types of conformity?
informational social influence: occurs when people conform to the behavior of others because they view them as a source of knowledge about what they are supposed to do. This type of conformity is most pronounced in ambiguous or novel situations
normative social influence: occurs when people go along with the behavior of others in order to be accepted by them
-
What is the Asch study?
three lines: more than 3/4 participants went along with the group (confederates = people who are part of the study) even when the group answer was clearly wrong; when participants worked along, the rarely made any errors
-
______ says that our likelihood of following either informational or normative social influence depends on three different aspects of the group: how importnat the group is to you, how close the group is to you in space and time, and how many people are in the group
social impact theory
-
In collectivist cultures, what matter more?
- groups matter more than the individual, so any group-preserving behavior (such as conformity) would b
- e valued and encouraged
-
Sometimes a single individual or small number of individuals (minority) influences the entire group ()majority). To have this happen, what must happen?
majority must present a consistent, unwavering message
-
Most often minority opinions shifts majority opinion by means of _____
informational social influence (if a group encounters a situation in which the members are unsure about what to do and a minority carefully presetns a well-thought-out position, then the majority might accept it)
-
Obedience
kind of conformity in which people yield to the social pressure of an authority figure
-
Who is Milgram?
- recruited people from the community to participate in an experiment at Yale:
- experimenter showed both the teacher and learner to the adjoining room where the learner would be seated. Leaner's task - learning words. Teacher: giving mild electric shock when learner makes a mistake. Results: at 150 volts there was a drop in obedience- from 100% to 83%. Some participants stopped, but many went on with the experiment. 65% of participants went all the way to 450 volts.
-
How we make sense of our social world
social perception
-
attributions
inferences we make about the causes of other people's behavior
-
occur when one thinks that someone's behavior is caused by something within them, such as personality, motive or attitude
internal/ dispositional attributions
-
occur when one thinks that something outside the person, such as the nature of the situation, is the cause of his/her behavior
external/ situational attributions
-
The self-serving bias is the tendency to make _____ for our own failures but ___ for our successes
situational attributions; dispositional attributions
-
According to research, most of us are poor ____. Why?
lie detectors; rely too much on miselading cues (over-interpreting ambiguous nonverbal cues); we should focus on inconsistent behaviors
-
best lie detectors?
attend to nonverbal information more than verbal information
-
What are schemas?
lenses through which one filters perceptions (likely to color our interpretations when we encounter ambiguous information)
-
schemas of how people are likely to behave based simply on the groups to which they belong
stereotypes (formed conclusions about people before we even interact with them)
-
Stereotype characteristics:
linkled to something factual (does not represent the gorup as a whole); support notions of belonging and exclusion taht can support unfair actions
-
showing positive feelings twoard people who belong to the same group as us and negative feelings towards those in other groups, we display
in-group/out-group bias
-
Consequences of perceinig others as different from us:
- -evaluate and treat people differently because of the group they belong
- -based in-group/out-group distinctions
- -hurts to be excluded from our group
-
tendency to see all members of an out-group as the same
out-group homogeneity
-
What is the Nature-Nurture Pointer relating to exclusion/inclusion?
social rejection activates the same brain circuitry that is activated by pain
-
biased attitude toward a group of people or an individual member of a group
prejudice (stems from stereotypes and a lack of info); (prejudices about race=racism sex= sexism)
-
preferential treatment of certain people that is usually driven by prejudicial attitudes
discrimination (result from institutionalized rules)
-
prejudiced attidues operate outside ____ and sometimes stand in stark contrast to ____
conscious awareness; one's beliefs
-
person's favorable/unfavorable beliefs, feelings, actions twaord an object, idea, or person
attitude
-
three components of attitudes?
- affective component: feelings/emotions associated with the belief
- behavioral component: motive to act in a particular way toward the person or object of the attitude
- cognitive component: consists of the rational thoughts and beliefs that make up the attitude
-
evolutionary forces explains automatic responses of attitudes, but many of our attitudes come from experience.
- nature-nurture pointer:
- EX: certain negtaive attitudes and emotional responses (snakes, shit) may be so important for our survival that they are part of our genetic hertiage
- EX: people around us teach us their attitudes through direct/indirect instruction
-
direct experience with an object, idea, or person increases one's overall preference for it
mere exposure
-
____ and his colleagues introduced the idea of conditioning. Explain
Mark Zanna; attitude can become paired with a pleasant or unpleasant feeling, leading to attitude change (nonsense syllables paired by emotionally positive or negative words)
-
Attitudes vary on strength and accessibility. ___ the attitude ___ it is to change
stronger; harder
-
feeling of discomfort caused by information that is different from your conception of yourself as a reasonable and sensible person (when two cognitions or beliefs conflict that threaten our images of ourselves)
cognitive dissonance
-
in an attempt to reduce this discomfort we:
- -change our behavior to make it consistent with dissonant cognition
- -we attempt to justify our behavior by changing one of the cognitions to make it more consistent with our behavior
- -we add new cognitions that are consistent with the behavior and thus support it
People experiencing cognitive disdsonance may go extreme lengths to reduce it and maintain our self-esteem. We often end up behaving very irrationally and rationalizing our behavior to reduce cognitive dissonance
-
occurs when a person or group attempts to changes our opinions, beliefs or choices by explaining or arguing their position
Persuasion
-
Three things persasuive attempts depend on?
who they are ___, method they use, and who we are ___
-
The more ___ the more likely he/she is to suceed in persuading us.
prestigious, trustworthy, attractive and familiar
-
The use of ___ is also persasuive
fear
-
The more people know about a topic the ____ their prior opinions are, and the ___ likely tehy are to change them
firmer; less
-
refers to the violent behaviors that are intended to cause psychological or physical harm, or both, to another being
aggression
-
____ stems from feelings of anger
hostile aggression
-
What's it called when agression is a means to achieve some goal?
instrumental aggression
-
Nature-Nurture pointer about aggression?
aggression results from interaction b/w genetic and social forces (Caspi and colleagues found that when genetic factors combine with an abusive and neglectful environment, the likelihood of violence increases dramatically)
-
Several brain areas are involved in agression. What are they?
hypothalamus, the amygdala, and the frontal cortex
-
What is the frontal lobe cortex responsible for?
impulse control (often malfunctioning in aggressive and violent people)
-
Two hormones most consistently related to high levels of agression:
testosterone and serotonin
-
What are boys more conssitently aggressive than girls at most ages?
importance of testosterone in aggression (Relatively high levels of testosterone = propensity toward violence)
-
What about serotonin?
low levels of serotonin were found in criminals who had committed violent acts but not in criminals who had committed nonviolent crimes; experimental research with monkeys has confirmed the link b/w low serotonin levels and aggression
-
How do situations effect aggression?
sitautions that frustate and prevent us from obtaining our goals arel iekly to amke us aggressive
-
Moreover, the ___ we are to our goal when we become frustrated, the _____. Example?
closer; more aggressive we are likely to be
-Harris had confederates cut in front of people in lines for movies or crowded restaurants, (sometimes they cut in front of second person in line and sometimes they cut in front of someone further back in line. Response of the person standing behind the intruder was much more aggressive when the confederate cut in front of the person second in line)
-
refers to the behavior that is beneficial to others
prosocial behavior
-
state sthat the greater number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
bystander effect
-
there are many people around and the rseponsibility of one person to act seems lessened
diffusion of responsibility
-
Factors that influence whether or not someone will intervene in an emergency?
whether people actually notice the event; when many people are present and doing nothing (people less likely to interpret an event as an emergency), individual must decide that it is their responsibility to do something about the emergency
-
selfless concern for and helping of others
altruism
-
Altruism doesn't make a lot of ___ sense. Why?
evolutionary; expose themselves to greater danger tha nthjose who selfishly protect themselves
-
Two explanations for altruistic behavior:
kin selection: evolutionary favoring of genes that prompt individuals to help their relatives or kin (Burstein and colleagues)
reciprocal altruism: when you help others in the hope that they will help you in the future (promotes cooperation)
-
argues that in our relations with others we try to maximize our gains and minimize our losses (we help otheres because such behavior can be rewarding, but we will help only if the rewards outweigh the cost (selfless altruism does not exist)
social exchange theory
-
sharing, feeling, and understanding another person's situation
empathy
-
hypothesis that states that people will offer sefless help only when they truly empathize with the victim
Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis
-
Two different motivations:
egoistic motivation is helping in order to relieve one's own stress
empathic motivation springs from an altruistic desire to reduce the distress of the person in need
-
What is the nature vs nurture pointer relating to empathy?
watching someone you love experience pain activates components of physical pain circuitry in the brain (only the the structures in the pain circuit that are the emotional aspect of the pain circuit activates)
EX: Singer and colleague (studied loved one's pains with MRI scanner. Studied responses when the female partner received a painful stimulus to her hand and then seeing her partner receive the same painful stimulus)
-
____ are more likely to like one another and share satisfying, long-lasting relationships
people with similar ideas, values, and interests
-
Example/ support?
- randomly assigned roomates become real friends when they have common backgrounds (Newcomb)
- people wanna help others who have similar personalitites (Wakimoto, Westmaas)
- People tend to be attracted to and partner with people of a similar level of attractiveness (Buss)
-
People tend to be attracted to and partner with people of a similar level of attractiveness
assortative mating
-
What makes you more attractive
average and symmetrical faces (mathematically average in the population)
-
suggests that men and women face different problems when they seek out mates (so they often approach relationships in very different ways)
sexual strategies theory
-
What are there differences in attraction b/w gender?
- women: paretnal investment is greater
- men: devote a larger portion of their total mating effort to short-term mating than do women
-
Men value? Women value?
signal fertility and accessibility (less true in evaluating long-term patners); provide resources to support their offspring
-
Sternberg's triangular theory of love: three components
____, _____, _____
- intimacy: close, connected and bonded feelings in loving relationships
- passion: drives that lead to romance, physical attraction ,sexual consummation, and is accompanied by physiological changes/arousal
- commitment: refers to both the decision to love someone or not and to the decision to commit to it long-term
-
____ exists when intimacy and commitment are high and passion is low; ____ exists when intimacy and passion are high and commitment is low; ____ exists when there is a lot of passion but no intimacy or commitment
companiote love; romantic love; infatuation
|
|
