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Social Perception
A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another
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nonverbal behavior
behavior that reveals a person's feelings without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues
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Mind perception
the process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people
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Attribution Theory
a group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior
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Personal Attribution
Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor
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situational attribution
attributions to factors external to an actor
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Covariation principle
A principle of att. theory that holds that ppl attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not
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Avaiability heuristic
tendency to estimate the liklihood that an evnt will occur by how easily of it comes to mind
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false-consensus effect
tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributions, and behaviors
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base-rate fallacy
the finding that people relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates
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counterfactual thinking
the tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occured but did not
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fundamental attribution error
tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people's behavior
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belief in just a world
the belief that individual get what they deserve in life
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impression formation
process of integrating info about a person to form a coherent impression
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information integration theory
- impressions are based on
- 1. perceiver dispositions
- 2. a weighted average of a target's trait
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priming
the tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new info
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implicit personality theory
network of assumption ppl make about the relationships among traits and behavior
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central traits
traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions
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primary effect
the tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than info presented later
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need for closure
desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impression
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confirmation bias
tendency to seek, interpret, and create info that verifies existing belief
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belief perseverance
tendency to maintain belief even after they have been discredited
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self fulfilling prophency
process by which one;s expectation about a person lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.
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attitude
a positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object or idea
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attitude scale
a multiple item questionaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object
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bogus pipeline
a phone lie-detector test that's sometime used to give truthful answer to sensitive questions
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EMG
records facial muscle activity associated with emotion and attitude
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implicit attitude
an attitude one is not aware of having
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implicit association test
a covert measure of unconscious attitude derived from the speed at which ppl resond to pairings of concept
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theory of planned behavior
theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's action
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persuasion
process by which attitudes are changed
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central route to persuasion
process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its argument
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peripheral route to persuasion
which a person does not think carefully about communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues
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elaboration
process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication
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sleeper effect
delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source
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need for cognition
personality variable that distinguishes ppl on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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inoculation hypothesis
idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increase later resistant to that argument
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psychological reactance
theory that ppl react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive
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cognitive dissonance theory
theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that ppl become motivated to reduce
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insufficient justification
a condition in which ppl freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward
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insufficient deterrence
a condition in which ppl refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when ony mild punishment is threatened
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conformity
to change our perceptions, opinions, or behaviors in ways that are consistent with group norms
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informational influence
influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgments
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normative influence
influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant
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private conformity
change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others
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public conformity
superficial change in overt behavior without a corresponding change of opinion that is produced by real or imagined group pressure
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minority influence
process by which dissenters produce change within a group
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idiosuncrasy credits
interpersonal "credits" that a person earns by following group norms
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individualism
a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self reliance takes priority over group allegiances
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collectivism
cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals
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compliance
change in behavior that elicited by direct request
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foot in the door technique
two step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request
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lowballing
a two step in which influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs
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door in the face technique
influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected
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that's not all technique
influencer begins an inflated request , then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus
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obedience
behavior change produced by the commands of authority
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social impact theory
that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target person
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group cohesiveness
extent to which forces push group members closer together, such as intimacy, unity, and commitment to group goals
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social facilitation
process whereby the presence of others enhance performance on easy task but impairs performance on difficult tasks
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mere presence theory
mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects
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evaluation apprehension theory
presence of others will produce socail faciliation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators
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distraction conflict theory
presence of other will produce social faciliation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict
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social loafing
group produced reduction in indv. output on tasks where contributions are pooled
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collective effort model
indv. will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their indv. efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for acheiving outcomes that they value
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deindivduation
the loss of a person's sense of individuality
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