Biology Midterm

• 2. i.
  3. Reverse of Dehydration

• ii.
• Inserts water to break a bond

• iii.
• Uses enzymes

• iv.
• Breaking
• large molecules into smaller molecules

used as an energy source

• Carbons
• hydrogens and oxygens

• consists
• of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sometimes sulfur

glycerol and fatty acids

• 2. 5
  3. carbon sugar,nitrogen base, and phosphate group (DNA, RNA)

• 2. Sugar
  3. , 3-7 carbons and 2 or more OH groups

• Those
• with 5 or more carbons form ring structures

• Sugar

• 2. Two
  3. monosaccharides

• Formed
• by Dehydration Synthesis

• Examples:
• Sucrose (glucose and fructose), Lactose ( glucose and galactose) Maltose
• (glucose and glucose)

• 3. Three or more monosaccharides

• Serve
• as storage macromolecules

• Long
• chains of glucose

• 2. Ex.
  3. Starch – storage form of sugar serve as building materials

• Ex. - Cellulose- cell walls of plants

• -
• Glycogen – in animals. Form in which sugar is
• stored in certain animal tissues (liver & Muscle). Stored in small
• granules.

• 2. Formed
  3. by Hydrolysis

glucose and fructose

glucose and glactose

glucose and glucose

• Differ
• in the arrangements of their atoms and may differ in the location of double
• bonds. Same molecular, different structural formula.

• glucose,
• fructose, galactose

• succross,
• lactoss, maltose

• 2. Starch
  3. – storage form of sugar serve as building materials
  5. - Cellulose- cell walls of plants
• Glycogen – in animals. Form in which sugar is
• stored in certain animal tissues (liver & Muscle). Stored in small
• granules.

• 3. first)-the
  4. particular sequence and types of amino acids.

• 3. i.
  4. like composing words from the alphabet

• ii.
• primary structure determined by the inherited
• genetic info.( not random linking!)

• 3. )-“repeated
  4. pattern” or arrangement- hydrogen bonding responsible for helical patterns or sheet-like
  5. pat terns (Pleated sheets)

• 3. i.
  4. Result of hydrogen
  5. bonds between the repeating constituents
  6. of the polypeptide backbone.

• 3. (3rd)-three
  4. dimensional, globular or coiled, fibrous (helixes or pleated sheets may be
  5. parallel to eachother)

• 3. i.
  4. Overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from
  5. interactions between othe sie chains of the amino acids

• 3. 4th)-
  4. results from the interaction of 2 or more polypeptide chains.

• 3. i.
  4. Overall protein structure that results from the
  5. aggregation of polypeptide units.

the building blocks of protiens?

• 2. i.
  3. Carboxyl and amino groups

• 1)
• proteins are exposed to increased temperatures
• or chemicals. Loss of structure
• EX: egg whites before and after heat

• 1)
• specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical
• reactions in cells

• 3. 5 Carbon Sugar- ribose and deoxyribose

• Nitrogen containing base (ring)

• Phosphate group

• High energy molecule that transforms energy
• around the cell. Nitrogen containing base, sugar and 3 phosphate groups.

Nitrogen containing base, sugar and 3 phosphate groups.

DNA and RNA

Rungs(bases) and uprights (sugar and phosphate) thymine, guanine, cytosine, and adenine

the same as DNA expt instead of thymine it has uricile

• 3. Transport H atoms and e- in metabolism. Roam
  4. around cell and pick up electrons to another
  5. part in cell and drop it off

• this reaction is also reversable. it can loose the e and go from NADH to NAD

• nicotinamide
• ,adenine ,dinucleotide

• flavin,
• adenind, dinucleotide

• 1)
• DNA (storehouses of instructions to build
• proteins). Enzyme,Helicase, unwinds DNA
• so expose instructions. Another molecule copies them to form RNA.

• The RNA goes through
• the nuclear pores (gatekeeper) and takes it the Ribosome.
• The ribosome (like a machine) builds a
• specific type of amino acids. When the chain of amino acids are finished they
• move from the ribosome into a machine that folds it into its particular shape
• for function, a protein (like hemoglobin)

• 2. i.
  3. fatty acid: consists of a carboxyl group
  4. attatched to a long carbon skeleton

• ii.
• don’t dissolve in water, waxed and cutin

• 2. i.
  3. Steroids, four carbon rings, hormones

• 3. One glycerol with three fatty acids produce a
  4. triglyceride by bonding. When they bond dehydration occurs and the waters are
  5. taken out.

• It’s a fat, so it stores energy for animals
• and people

Make up cell membranes

• b. Has a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic
• tails

• c. It has two (not three like
• they fat molecule) fatty acid tails
• attached to the glycerol head.

• d. form
• bilayer in environment with water.

• synthasizes
• steroids

• reproduction
• hormone

• has
• a straight tail because all hydrogen have single bonds.(butter)

• has
• a kink in the tail because of the double bond in the hydrogen (oil)

• a
• cellular structure carrying genetic material that is found in the nucleus of
• eukaryotic cells. A bacterial chromosome is found in the nuecleoid region

• unit of
• hereditary info consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA

sequence of chromosomes in a base pair

• 3. all organisms are composed of one or more cells.

• The cell is the basic living unit

• All cells arise from pre-existing cells

• plasma membrane
• cytoplasm
• genetic material

size and structure. (morphology and physiolgy)

• phospholipids
• are major component; controls what enters and leaves the cell (homeostatic)

• thick
• (like syrup), made of water and ribosomes.

• DNA
• which is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes but found in the nucleoid region of
• prokaryotes

*Domain- Archaea and Bacteria

*Structurally less complex

*Average 1-10 microns

*No membrane bound organelles

*Nucleoid region

*Cell division by binary fission

• *Domain Eukarya Kingdoms- Plantae, Anamilia, Fungi, Protista *Structurally more complex *single and multicellular organelles *Larger than 10-100 microns(micrometers) *Membrane bound organelles *True nucleus * Cell division by cytokinesis preceeded by mitosis or meiosis.

• Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes both have DNA, a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
• Prokaryotes have DNA in the
• chromosome in nucleoid region.
• Eukaryotes have DNA chromosome in the nucleus. They also have membrane bound organelles, Cytomembrane system(golgi bodies, ER, lysosomes)

• 2. contains
  3. most of the DNA in the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane.

• 2. i.
  3. separates the DNA in the nucleus from the
  4. rest of the cell. It also stores genetic information and controls cytoplasmic
  5. chemical reactions.

• 2. i.
  3. The
  4. fluid contained within the nucleus of a eukaryote in
  5. which the chromosomes and nucleoli are found.

• Found
• in the cytoplasm of the cell. composed of proteins and nucleic acids. Used in
• formation of ribosomes

• genetic
• info. Single piece of coiled DNA

security gate

• contains
• the rest of the organelles such as ER, mitochondria, etc. Outside of the
• nucleus

• 2. - attached to the outside of the
  3. membrane. It is the machine that helps with protein synthesis. It reads the
  4. messenger RNA to make the new protien

• Smooth ER-contains
• enzymes involved in lipid and steroid synthesis and detoxification. lacks bound
• ribosomes

• contains
• enzymes involved in lipid and steroid synthesis and detoxification. lacks bound
• ribosomes

• -Its
• like the post office and each mail truck is a message being sent. It receives
• substances from the ER, then it modify’s (sorts) them and packages them and
• sends them off to the plasma membrane

contains a Matrix, cristae, inner membrane, outer membrane, intermembrane space,

• 2. i.
  3. contains DNA(not found in the nucleus) and
  4. enzymes involved in metabolic activities. Inclosed by the inner membrane. Involved in
  5. cellular resperation

• formed
• by the inner membrane infoldings. Divides
• mitochondrion into two separate parts.

• Makes
• the folding that form Cristae. Narrow region between the inner and outer membranes

• - includes
• proteins that can be used by the matrix to convert lipid substances.

• contains
• enzymes that use ATP to phosphorylate
• other nuceotides

closely related plant organelles

• site
• of photosynthesis. Convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing
• sunlight.
• Has a thylakoid membrane, grana, theylakoidj space and stroma

• system of interconnected membranes that are arranged
• into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids.

• series
• of stacked thylakoid disks containing chlorophyll; found in the inner membrane
• of chloroplasts.

interior of thylakoids

takes place in the chloroplasts

surrounds the thylakoid space. Contains free ribosomes and copies of the chloroplst genome

• 2. i.
  3. synthesize and cartenoid pigments, yellow,
  4. orange, red, or brown, that give flowers and fruits their color.

• 2. attract
  3. pollinators

• 2. i.
  3. no pigment

• 2. Storage
  3. sites and synthesis for startch

• Can
• change into chloroplasts when exposed to light

• contain
• cell sap,water, sals, sugars, protein enzymes, storage agent. Increases cell
• area.

• digest
• materials taken into the cell

made by rough ER, recycle the cells own genetic material

carried out by lysosomes

cell suicide

• 2. network
  3. of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. (like the highway)Responsible
  4. for:

• 2. Cell
  3. shape

• Internal
• organization

• Motility

globular, highly conserved

family of related proteins that share common structural and sequence features

polymers that make up facilia and fagila in a 9 to 2 ratio. ( 9 outer, 2 inner)

moves the egg

• sperm tail
• turn in circle like boat moter to move

microtuble organizing center. regulator of cell cycle progression

make proteins from amino acids according to instructions from genes. On rough ER and free floating in cytoplasm

• i.
• composed
• of 9 microtubules. Located in cytoplasm
• replicates for animal cell divison

• Animal Cells: Centriole Plant Cells: Chloroplast, Cell Wall Both: Cell Membrane, Mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic
• reticulum, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, chromosome, vacuole, Golgi
• apparatus, cytoplasm, flagellum

• 1) In
• a light microscope, visible light is passed through a specimen and then through
• glass lenses. The lenses refract the light is such a way that the image of the
• specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye, onto photographic film
• or digital sensor, ot onto a video screen.

• 1) In
• an electron microscope it focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or
• onto its surface.

made up of phospholipid bilayer and proteins

• organic
• compounds made of amino acids
• -

• contain
• glycan covalently attatched to polypeptide side chains.
• - They allow certain types of cell-to-cell communication, help coordinate
• complicated cellular responses to stimuli, and activate the action of other
• types of cells.

• 2. glipids
  3. with carbohydrate attatched
  -are carbohydrate attached lipids. Their role is to provide energy and also
• serve as markers for cellular recognition.

• waxes,
• steroid, metabolite. Found in cell membrane

1) Transmembrane are embeded into the membrane and peripheral are loosely attatched to the outside.

hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel through the membrane

a protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its ative site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.

A membrane protein (receptor)may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. the external messenger may cause a shape change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell

membrane bound proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions such as gap junctions or tight junctions

• microfilaments
• or other elements noncovalantly bounded
• to membrane proteins, function helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes location
• of certain mem. proteins

one millionth 10 ^-6

one hundreth of a meter 10^-1

10^{-3, one thousandth}

10^-2

10^-9