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What color will appear if the light from every spectrum is reflected?
white
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What color will appear if the light from every spectrum is absorbed?
Black
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How many muscles do we have in the eye?
6
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What is the yellow tissue used for safety and cushion around the eye?
adipose tissue
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What secretes tears in the eye?
lacrimal glands
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What drains tears into the nasal cavity?
Nasolacrimal duct
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What is the white part of the eye?
Sclera
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What is continuous of the Sclera and transparent for light entry?
Cornea
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What is muscular and controls pupal diameter in the eye?
Iris
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What is soft, focuses light, and can change shape?
lens
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What controls the change in shape of the lens?
ciliary body and zonular fibers
-
Acts as spokes on a wheel to the lens.
zonular fibers
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What deteremines eye color?
- -genetics
- -melanin amount and distribution
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What is it called when two eyes have different colors or there are different colors in the same eye?
Heterochomia
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What fills the space in the front of the eye?
Aqueous humor (gets replaced)
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What is the aqueous humor made of?
tissue from the ciliary body
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What fills the back of the eye?
vitreous humor (is not replaced)
-
Where does the aqueous humor drain?
the Canal of Schlemn
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What is directly inside the Sclera?
Choroid
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What does the Choroid do?
prevents light from scattering
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What is directly inside the Choroid?
Retina
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What does the retina do?
photo receptors located in the retina
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What is the small dent in the retina where your eye is most focused?
Fovea
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This place is where a bundle of axons exit the eye.
Optic nerve
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The exact place where the nerve axons leave.
Optic Disk (blind spot)
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Eyelash mites:
- 65 species
- specific to mammals
- 2 infect humans
- more than 90% of adults posses
- increase with age
-
How many receptors are in each taste bud?
around 100
-
Clusters of taste buds are called:
fungiform papillae
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Gustation Pathways:
Tongue/oral cavity -> medulla -> thalamus -> gustatory cortex
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Olfactory receptor cells are found in the:
olfactory epithelium
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What is the accessory olfactory structure in many mammals?
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
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Process through which light reflecteed from objects in our environment is translated into a mental image?
vision
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Which nerve is the oculomotor nerve?
Cranial nerve III
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Pupiliary constriction?
parasympathetic stimulation of circular muscle
-
Pupiliary dialation?
sympathetic stimulation of radial muscle
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Vision pathway?
light hits photoreceptors -> rods & cons -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve
-
Which cells mediat neurons and regulate vision?
- Amacrine cells
- horizontal cells
-
Rods?
- monochromatic vision (black and white)
- low light conditions
-
Cones?
- color vision
- high light levels
-
Cones or rods in fovea?
- highest # of cones
- # of cones decline rapidly away from fovea
- # of rods greatest near fovea then declines gradually away from fovea
-
convergence?
more than one photoreceptor synapse with a single bipolar cell
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Phototransduction:
- 1. Light absorbed by photopigment in outer segment of photoreceptor
- 2. Photopigment changes shape; Na+ channels close
- 3. Potassium leakage out of cell; hyperpolaraization of outer segment
- 4. Hyperpolarizing membrane potential causes closing of Ca++ channels in inner
- segment
- 5. Less Ca++ enters cells, neurotransmitter release declines (glutamate)
- 6. Bipolar cell receives less neurotransmitter, generates smaller graded
- potentials
-
little convergence?
greater visual acuity
-
more convergence?
greater light sensitivity
-
waves caused by air molecules put in motion?
sound
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Outer part of the ear that we can see?
pinna
-
3 bones in the middle ear?
-
Tube that runs from the middle ear to the throat?
Eustachian Tube
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Organ located in the center of the cochlea?
Organ of Corti
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What picks up the vibrations in the organ of corti to transduce sound?
hair cells and tectorial membrane
-
Auditory pathways:
Nerve VIII -> medulla -> pons -> midbrain & thalamus -> auditory cortex
-
What contains equlibrium ear parts?
Vestibular Apparatus
-
Equlibrium pathways:
Cranial Nerve VIII -> cerebellum
-
Sympathetic NS:
fight or flight
-
Emergency Theory:
- Releas of epinephrine or norepinephrin from the sympathetic NS/adrenal sypathetic pathway to a stressor
- heart rate, 02 intake, blood-glucose affected
-
Parasympathetic NS:
- rest or digest
- maintenance of homeostasis
-
Autonomic control center found in:
-
Ganglion:
collection of cell bodies
-
Autonomic pathways:
CNS -> preganglionic neuron -> autonomic ganglion -> postganlionic neuron (usually 8) -> target tissue
-
Over reaction to autonomic NS (vagus nerve) to certain triggers causes?
Vasovagal syncope (fainting)
-
What is a modified sympathetic ganglion?
Adrenal Medulla
-
Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic
- Sympathetic preganlionic neurons are thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves
- Parasympathetic are cranial and sacral spinal nerves; vagus nerve (x) important!
- Sympathetic chain
- Neurotransmitters
- -Sympathetic pathways use norepinephrin
- -Parasympathetic pathways use acetylcholine
-
What are on the end of terminals that attach to muscle fibers?
- Motor end plates
- where synapse occurs
-
Which muscles have more than one nucleus?
skeletal muscles
-
which muscles have intercalated disks? and are branching?
cardiac
-
how much of our body weight is muscle?
40%
-
muscle cell membrane?
sarcolemma
-
muscle cell cytoplasm?
sarcoplasm
-
modified endoplasmic reticulum?
sarcoplasmic reticulum
-
bundle of muscle fibers
muscle fascicle
-
wraps the whole muscle?
Endimysium
-
wraps the fasicle?
perimysium
-
wraps the muscle fiber?
endomysium
-
bundle of proteins?
myofibril
-
single protein?
myofilament
-
Myosin?
thick part- spring - dark in picture
-
Actin?
balls line up - allow contraction - lighter part in picture
-
Tropomyosin?
rope around actin (regulatory)
-
Troponin?
brown smaller balls around actin (regulatory)
-
Nepulin?
anchor actin - line throught the middle of balls (accessory)
-
Titin?
anchor myosin - squiggle part (accessory)
-
Neuromuscular Junction:
- 1. ACh release from axon
- 2. Binding to sarcolemina receptors
- 3. Depolarization of saracolemina
-
Muscular fiber contraction:
- 1. Release ACh at junction
- 2. Entry of Na+ through ACh receptor-channel initiates a muscle action potential
- 3. Action potential in t-tubule alters conformation of DHP receptor
- 4. DHP receptor opens Ca++ release channels in sarcoplasmic reticulum and Ca ++ enters cytoplasm
- 5. Ca++ binds to troponin, allowing actin-myosin binding
- 6. Myosin heads executive power stroke
- 7. Actin filiment slides toward center of sarcomere
-
Muscle contraction part 2:
- 1. Ca++ in cytosil
- 2. Ca++ binds to troponin
- 3. Troponin-tropomyson pull away from binding site
- 4. power stroke
- 5. actin filament moves
-
Motor unit:
one motor neruon and every muscle cell it intervates
-
Asynchronous recruitment:
helps muscle from getting fatiqued
-
3 roles of ATP in muscle contraction:
- 1. Unbinding of myosin from actin and energizing myosin for power stroke
- 2. Re-uptake of Ca++ into sarcoplasmic reticulum via Ca++ pumps
- 3. Na/K pumps activity to help maintain proper concentration gradients (just like for any other cell)
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