Microbiology Midterm

• 1. The organism must be present in every case of the disease
• 2. The organism must be isolated from the dieseased host and grow in pure culture
• 3. The disease must reproduce when a pure culture of the organism is innoculated into a healthy suceptible host.
• 4. The organism must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host.

• Found living shings are made up of cells through observations of mold fruiting bodies.
• First ever to focus on microscopy
• - The germ theory of disease - microorganisms are the casue of infectious diseases

First book written on microorganisms

• Anton von Leeuenhoek, becasue he constructed his own microscope which allowed him to see beacteria which was much smaller than the molds he was looking at
• - first person to see bacteria

• does spontaneous generation occur?
• what is the nature of infectious disease?

no they need to be pressurized and heated

Debunked theory of Spontaneous Generation Introduced concept of "diseases" in wine/beer caused by microorganisms

Pasteurization - Process of gentle heating to inactivate contaminating microbes

Swann neck flaskflask - with a narrow opening which was boiled to sterilize and then neck bent. Air gasses allowed to pass through but dust particles could not get in

• First to treat syphilis with Salvarasan; introduced concept of chemotherapy
• - taught that microorganisms react differently with different chemicals

First person to isolate a causative agent of an infections disease

Created vaccination using idea that milkmaids never got cow pox because they were exposed to it and therefore introduced the idea of vaccination.

microscopic organisms and viruses and thier roles in human disease as well as beneficial processes

Having cellular structures enclosed by membranes. "Eu" means true. Karyote = nucleus.

No distinguishable membraneous stuctures. "Pro" means before

• 1. Microscopes
• 2. Pure cultures for isolating pathogens
• 3. Germ theory of disease
• 4. antiseptics
• 5. scientific rigor
• 6. chemotherapies and antibodies

• bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes
• - largest group is prokaryotes but archaea is closer related to eukarya than it is to bacterium

• Very large compounds:
• 1. proteins
• 2. sugars
• 3. nucleic acids
• 4. lipids

• 1. coccus
• 2. spirrilum
• 3. rob/bacillus
• 4. spirochetes
• 5. vibrio
• 6. appendaged
• 7. filamentous

1. Viruses, satellite viruses, viroids2. Prions

• 1. Animalia
• 2. Plantae
• 3. Fungi
• 4. Protista
• 5. Eubacteria
• 6. Archaebacteria

2. They do not reproduce

• 2
• chains
• 4
• cube or 8
• grape like cluster
• a bacillus which appears almost circular

• - nanobacteria which meets the lower limit of 0.1 of a micrometer
• - thomargarita at 750 micrometers (it is so big due to a large sulfur vesicle in the center of it)

thin peptidoglycan layer that can be easily destained and turned red when treated with saffranin

thick peptidoglycan layer that turns purple when subjected to crystal violet staining

• 1. add crystal violet - all purple
• 2. grams iodine - crystallizes the purple
• 3. EtOH or acetone - decolorizes gram negative
• 4. saffranin - gram positive will be purple but gram negative will turn red

• used to tell id a cell has a mycolic acid layer as opposed to a peptidoglycan layer. These cells are technically gram positive but will not stain becasue they lack the necessary peptidoglycan to retain the crystal violet stain
• - these mycobacterium dont have cell walls which allows them to be slow growing and resistant to most antibiotics

- basically allows us to see which cells are like this so further action can be taken to liberate the host

• Defines where energy comes from/ where carbon comes from
• 1. chemicals - (chemo-)
• a. organics - chemoorganotrophs
• b. rocks - chemolithotrophs
• 2. light - phototrophs
• 3. organic chemicals - heterotrophs
• 4. inorganic chemicals - autotrophs

• Defines whether or not organisms need oxygen or need to be separated from oxygen
• 1. anarobes - need to be separated from air

2. aerobes - need to be surrounded by air

• a. obligate - have to have
• b. facultative - can tolerate

• describes the environments and conditions organisms "love"
• 1. salt - halophile
• 2. temperature
• a. high temp - hyperthermophile
• b. low temp - psychrophile
• 3. pH
• acidic - acidophile
• basic - alkaliphile
• 4. pressure - barophile

• 1. must metabolize
• break down - catabolism
• build up - anabolism
• 2. reproduce
• 3. differentiate
• 4. evolve
• 5. movement
• 6. communication

becasue it need a host in order to reproduce

large, non-polar, organic molecules do not dissolve easily in water

-used for fuel energy and structureal components

organic cofactor (Not a macromolecule; often organic) that cannot be made by the cell that requires them

Ex. humans need calcium.

• organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (sometimes other elements)
• -serve as: building blocks for other macromolecules, storage compounds, modify function of proteins "added water to carbon"

(RNA,DNA, nucleotides)

• RNA and DNA are used for catalytic processes and information storage
• Nucleotides arre useed for the transfer of energy and signalling

used for energy, catalysts, signalling, structural intermediates and many other things

glycerol, water, small uncharged molecules, animo acids, glucose

salt,big things, charged things, ions

• channels - selective
• integral/transport proteins - selective
• porins - not selective

• bacteria pump hydrogen ions outside of the cell constantly but they need there hydrogens in order to power the production of ATP
• - so, as the hydrogens are forced out and we get an ion gradient that creates a force that can be used by ATPase to make more ATP

tumble - when tconcentration of nutrients is low and they tumble around

straight line - if there is a high concentration of nurtients

to whip in a circular motion - alternate clenching and relaxing

both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts

glycocalyx

Polymer of sugar residues that coat the bacterium or eykaryote (used for protection or for a sticky adherence to things)

EPS - extra polymeric substance

• Attachment hooks that the organism can use to "hold on" to things
• - pilli are specialized, fimbria are not (sex pilli)
• - pilli used in twitching/ inch worm motility

• Movement and motility
• 1. projections
• 2. one
• 3. all over
• 4. at one or both ends
• 5. tufted
• 6. both

• basil bodies
• tip, not like hair from a root
• energy from the proton motor force to pull cell forward ( gliding motility)

• movement of an organism towards or away from a chemical
• movement to or from light
• movement to or from oxygen

• Inclusions are dense aggregates of specific chemical compounds in the cell.
• Typically, the aggregated chemical serves as a reservoir of either energy-rich compounds or building blocks for the cell.
• Forming polymers costs energy and it may seem wiser for the cell to keep the excess monomers around for when they are needed.

However, the role of some inclusions is unclear. Growth on rich medium causes their creation, but subsequent starvation in the test tube does not always result in the use of these reserves. This suggests that these inclusions, at least, are not storage bodies.

• These form when there is a low concentration of nurtients needed for continuation of life. They are super resistant and always show as gram +
• - these are a way for the organisms to propogate itself because it can now protect its dna from degregation through this long lived endospore
• - they have an acid protected shell for the DNA and itself

Growth can only happen in the presence of nutrients. As nutrients decrease and waste increases, the cells will begin to die. It will then lyse out its remaining nutrients to endospores or other organisms. this allows those organisms to start growing again

• substrate level phosphoylation
• gives off 4 ATP
• - Used when alot of ATP is not needed or in the absence of ATP
• a. products - acids
• b. glycolysis gives off c-c-c needed for respiration

Use the proton motor force to generate the H+ gradient needed in ordwer to power the production of maximum ATP (38)

show where electrons come from and to whom they are donated

• the time needed for the cell count to double
• - this is during the exponential growth section of the phases of growth

dna -> RNA -> proteins

• 1. replication - DNA converted into new double stranded DNA using DNA polymerase
• 2. Transcription - DNA is converted to mRNA using RNA polymerase
• 3. Translation - mRNA is encoded into the new fully functional protein using the ribosomes
• - ribosomes are aided by tRNA and tmRNA

• used to unstall ribosomes and encodes the degredation of proteins made by a messed up ribosome
• - functional and information starage protein
• a. carries alanine - storage of information
• b. encode degregation - function

• primitive cytoskeleton
• - helps make structure, without it we have sphere shape and with it we have rod shape
• - the scaffolding also helps localize certain functions to happen in only one part of the cell

those that carry amino acids and other information sequences

proteins that carry on metabolic, catalytic, or other processes (are reactive)

• leading strand - made continuously by polymerase
• lagging strand - is not in the right orientation to be made continuously and therefore must be made in okazaki sequences

• Initiation (requres sigma factors)
• elongation
• termination

• sigma 70- general housekeeping
• sigma 38- stationary phase
• sigma 32- heated shock

• intrinsic - stem loop
• RHO dependent - recognizes the RHO terminator

• 1. The 16s subunit of ribosome recognizes the SHINE DELGARNO sequence which allows for ribosomes to bind
• 2. tRNA is now able to bring anticodon to the transcript, thus assembling a new protein
• 3. The code is redundant = there is more than one code for each amino acid this way mutation wont always be devistating

stop codon

GTP - this is becasue it has the same amount of energy as ATP, but is less abundant, letting us know that if we start to run out of GTP we need to stop/slow down so the cell doesnt run out of ATP

• 1. Initiation
• 2. elongation
• 3. translocation - GTP powered
• 4. termination

make sure things stay folded properly

in response to their environment using signals

the regulation of more than one process

study of microorganisms in their natural environments

Groups of cells derived from a single parent cell by successive cell divisions

pathogens

microorganisms are isolated from natural samples ina highly selective fashion by manipulating nutrient and incubation condidtions

• alive or dead?
• hard and time consuming

- live and dead staining techniques (sees if the membrane has been depolarized or not)

problems- cannot deal with more than one or 2 bacteria and expensive

solution - count cells by dilutions

Depends on how cloudy media is

• Problems - can only look at one organism
• depends on organisms environments

waits for initiators to start

makes polymer of RNA (which can form secondary structure

separates 2 DNA strands to make new RNA

• bacteria can "talk"
• - when they are together they recieve each other's sign als and are able to see how many of them exist and can then make a move all together
• - auto inducer 1 - species specific
• - auto inducer 2 - interspecies

blocks receptor with a similar molecule

by killing bacteria we are only allowing the resistant forms to live which does not stop the damage they do. if we inhibit them, we keeo them from talking to each other

culture media - nutrient solutions used to grom microorganisms in the laboratory

defined media (selective) - prepared by adding precise amounts of highly purified inorganic or organic chemicals to distilled water

Complex media - highly nutritious yet impure substances (usually better)

using GTP instead of ATP for certain functions (ribosomes use GTP for translocation)