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What are Koch's posulates?
- 1. The organism must be present in every case of the disease
- 2. The organism must be isolated from the dieseased host and grow in pure culture
- 3. The disease must reproduce when a pure culture of the organism is innoculated into a healthy suceptible host.
- 4. The organism must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host.
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Hooke
- Found living shings are made up of cells through observations of mold fruiting bodies.
- First ever to focus on microscopy
- - The germ theory of disease - microorganisms are the casue of infectious diseases
First book written on microorganisms
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Who is considered the father of microbiology?
- Anton von Leeuenhoek, becasue he constructed his own microscope which allowed him to see beacteria which was much smaller than the molds he was looking at
- - first person to see bacteria
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two big questions of early microbiology
- does spontaneous generation occur?
- what is the nature of infectious disease?
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can all vassillis be killed by boiling
no they need to be pressurized and heated
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Louis Pasteur
Two accomplishments
Debunked theory of Spontaneous Generation Introduced concept of "diseases" in wine/beer caused by microorganisms
Pasteurization - Process of gentle heating to inactivate contaminating microbes
Swann neck flaskflask - with a narrow opening which was boiled to sterilize and then neck bent. Air gasses allowed to pass through but dust particles could not get in
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Paul Ehrlich
- First to treat syphilis with Salvarasan; introduced concept of chemotherapy
- - taught that microorganisms react differently with different chemicals
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Robert Koch
First person to isolate a causative agent of an infections disease
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Edward Jenner
Created vaccination using idea that milkmaids never got cow pox because they were exposed to it and therefore introduced the idea of vaccination.
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Microbiology is the study of.....
microscopic organisms and viruses and thier roles in human disease as well as beneficial processes
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Eukaryotic
Having cellular structures enclosed by membranes. "Eu" means true. Karyote = nucleus.
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Prokaryotic
No distinguishable membraneous stuctures. "Pro" means before
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Big ideas in infectious disease study
- 1. Microscopes
- 2. Pure cultures for isolating pathogens
- 3. Germ theory of disease
- 4. antiseptics
- 5. scientific rigor
- 6. chemotherapies and antibodies
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3 main domains of life
- bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes
- - largest group is prokaryotes but archaea is closer related to eukarya than it is to bacterium
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Macromolecule
- Very large compounds:
- 1. proteins
- 2. sugars
- 3. nucleic acids
- 4. lipids
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Shapes
1. circle or sphere
2. a spiral shape
3. long cylindrical shapes
4. long, winding spirals (thinner and longer)
5. bent
6. stalks, looks like a push pin or tack
7. multiple long pin like structures clumped together
- 1. coccus
- 2. spirrilum
- 3. rob/bacillus
- 4. spirochetes
- 5. vibrio
- 6. appendaged
- 7. filamentous
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What are the 2 groups of non-living organisms?
1. Viruses, satellite viruses, viroids2. Prions
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What are the 6 kingdoms of life?
- 1. Animalia
- 2. Plantae
- 3. Fungi
- 4. Protista
- 5. Eubacteria
- 6. Archaebacteria
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What are 2 factors that distinguish the living from the non living?
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1. They do not have cells
2. They do not reproduce
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diplo
strepto
tetrads
sarchinae
staphyl
cocco
- 2
- chains
- 4
- cube or 8
- grape like cluster
- a bacillus which appears almost circular
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cell sizes
- smallest
-largest
- - nanobacteria which meets the lower limit of 0.1 of a micrometer
- - thomargarita at 750 micrometers (it is so big due to a large sulfur vesicle in the center of it)
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Gram negative
thin peptidoglycan layer that can be easily destained and turned red when treated with saffranin
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gram positive
thick peptidoglycan layer that turns purple when subjected to crystal violet staining
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steps in gram staining
- 1. add crystal violet - all purple
- 2. grams iodine - crystallizes the purple
- 3. EtOH or acetone - decolorizes gram negative
- 4. saffranin - gram positive will be purple but gram negative will turn red
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the acid fast test
- used to tell id a cell has a mycolic acid layer as opposed to a peptidoglycan layer. These cells are technically gram positive but will not stain becasue they lack the necessary peptidoglycan to retain the crystal violet stain
- - these mycobacterium dont have cell walls which allows them to be slow growing and resistant to most antibiotics
- basically allows us to see which cells are like this so further action can be taken to liberate the host
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Trophs
- examples
- Defines where energy comes from/ where carbon comes from
- 1. chemicals - (chemo-)
- a. organics - chemoorganotrophs
- b. rocks - chemolithotrophs
- 2. light - phototrophs
- 3. organic chemicals - heterotrophs
- 4. inorganic chemicals - autotrophs
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Obes
- examples
- Defines whether or not organisms need oxygen or need to be separated from oxygen
- 1. anarobes - need to be separated from air
2. aerobes - need to be surrounded by air
- a. obligate - have to have
- b. facultative - can tolerate
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philes
- types
- describes the environments and conditions organisms "love"
- 1. salt - halophile
- 2. temperature
- a. high temp - hyperthermophile
- b. low temp - psychrophile
- 3. pH
- acidic - acidophile
- basic - alkaliphile
- 4. pressure - barophile
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Essential Components of Life
- 1. must metabolize
- break down - catabolism
- build up - anabolism
- 2. reproduce
- 3. differentiate
- 4. evolve
- 5. movement
- 6. communication
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why isnt a virus alive?
becasue it need a host in order to reproduce
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Lipids
large, non-polar, organic molecules do not dissolve easily in water
-used for fuel energy and structureal components
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Vitamin
organic cofactor (Not a macromolecule; often organic) that cannot be made by the cell that requires them
Ex. humans need calcium.
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Carbohydrate (polysaccrides)
- organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (sometimes other elements)
- -serve as: building blocks for other macromolecules, storage compounds, modify function of proteins "added water to carbon"
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nucleic acids
(RNA,DNA, nucleotides)
- RNA and DNA are used for catalytic processes and information storage
- Nucleotides arre useed for the transfer of energy and signalling
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amino acids (peptides and proteins)
used for energy, catalysts, signalling, structural intermediates and many other things
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Allowed through cytoplasmic membrane
glycerol, water, small uncharged molecules, animo acids, glucose
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not allowed through cytoplasmic membrane
salt,big things, charged things, ions
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ways for other molecules to get through cytoplasmic membrane
- channels - selective
- integral/transport proteins - selective
- porins - not selective
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proton motor force
- bacteria pump hydrogen ions outside of the cell constantly but they need there hydrogens in order to power the production of ATP
- - so, as the hydrogens are forced out and we get an ion gradient that creates a force that can be used by ATPase to make more ATP
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2 ways bacteria move
tumble - when tconcentration of nutrients is low and they tumble around
straight line - if there is a high concentration of nurtients
to whip in a circular motion - alternate clenching and relaxing
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ampipathic phospholipids
both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts
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Capsule and slime layer -
glycocalyx
Polymer of sugar residues that coat the bacterium or eykaryote (used for protection or for a sticky adherence to things)
EPS - extra polymeric substance
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fimbria and pilli
- Attachment hooks that the organism can use to "hold on" to things
- - pilli are specialized, fimbria are not (sex pilli)
- - pilli used in twitching/ inch worm motility
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flagella
1. trichous
2.mono
3.peri
4. polar
5. lopho
6. amphi
- Movement and motility
- 1. projections
- 2. one
- 3. all over
- 4. at one or both ends
- 5. tufted
- 6. both
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Flagella are anchored by _____
grow from _____ (not like_______)
move with __
- basil bodies
- tip, not like hair from a root
- energy from the proton motor force to pull cell forward ( gliding motility)
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chemotaxis
phototaxis
Aerotaxis
- movement of an organism towards or away from a chemical
- movement to or from light
- movement to or from oxygen
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inclusions
- Inclusions are dense aggregates of specific chemical compounds in the cell.
- Typically, the aggregated chemical serves as a reservoir of either energy-rich compounds or building blocks for the cell.
- Forming polymers costs energy and it may seem wiser for the cell to keep the excess monomers around for when they are needed.
However, the role of some inclusions is unclear. Growth on rich medium causes their creation, but subsequent starvation in the test tube does not always result in the use of these reserves. This suggests that these inclusions, at least, are not storage bodies.
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endospores
- These form when there is a low concentration of nurtients needed for continuation of life. They are super resistant and always show as gram +
- - these are a way for the organisms to propogate itself because it can now protect its dna from degregation through this long lived endospore
- - they have an acid protected shell for the DNA and itself
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parameters of growth
Growth can only happen in the presence of nutrients. As nutrients decrease and waste increases, the cells will begin to die. It will then lyse out its remaining nutrients to endospores or other organisms. this allows those organisms to start growing again
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fermantation
- substrate level phosphoylation
- gives off 4 ATP
- - Used when alot of ATP is not needed or in the absence of ATP
- a. products - acids
- b. glycolysis gives off c-c-c needed for respiration
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Respiration and electron transport chain
Use the proton motor force to generate the H+ gradient needed in ordwer to power the production of maximum ATP (38)
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redox reactions
show where electrons come from and to whom they are donated
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doubling time
- the time needed for the cell count to double
- - this is during the exponential growth section of the phases of growth
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central dogma
dna -> RNA -> proteins
- 1. replication - DNA converted into new double stranded DNA using DNA polymerase
- 2. Transcription - DNA is converted to mRNA using RNA polymerase
- 3. Translation - mRNA is encoded into the new fully functional protein using the ribosomes
- - ribosomes are aided by tRNA and tmRNA
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tmRNA
- used to unstall ribosomes and encodes the degredation of proteins made by a messed up ribosome
- - functional and information starage protein
- a. carries alanine - storage of information
- b. encode degregation - function
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MREB
- primitive cytoskeleton
- - helps make structure, without it we have sphere shape and with it we have rod shape
- - the scaffolding also helps localize certain functions to happen in only one part of the cell
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information storage proteins
those that carry amino acids and other information sequences
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functional proteins
proteins that carry on metabolic, catalytic, or other processes (are reactive)
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there are 2 different types of DNA strands
- leading strand - made continuously by polymerase
- lagging strand - is not in the right orientation to be made continuously and therefore must be made in okazaki sequences
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steps of transcription
- Initiation (requres sigma factors)
- elongation
- termination
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Sigma factors
- sigma 70- general housekeeping
- sigma 38- stationary phase
- sigma 32- heated shock
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types of termination
- intrinsic - stem loop
- RHO dependent - recognizes the RHO terminator
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translation of mRNA to protein
- 1. The 16s subunit of ribosome recognizes the SHINE DELGARNO sequence which allows for ribosomes to bind
- 2. tRNA is now able to bring anticodon to the transcript, thus assembling a new protein
- 3. The code is redundant = there is more than one code for each amino acid this way mutation wont always be devistating
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nonsense codon
stop codon
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translation is driven by
GTP - this is becasue it has the same amount of energy as ATP, but is less abundant, letting us know that if we start to run out of GTP we need to stop/slow down so the cell doesnt run out of ATP
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4 steps of translation
- 1. Initiation
- 2. elongation
- 3. translocation - GTP powered
- 4. termination
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chaparonins
cells communicate
make sure things stay folded properly
in response to their environment using signals
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global control
the regulation of more than one process
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microbial ecology
Microbial populations
study of microorganisms in their natural environments
Groups of cells derived from a single parent cell by successive cell divisions
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Infectious diseases are caused by
pathogens
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enrichment culture technique
microorganisms are isolated from natural samples ina highly selective fashion by manipulating nutrient and incubation condidtions
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Problems with microscopy
- alive or dead?
- hard and time consuming
- live and dead staining techniques (sees if the membrane has been depolarized or not)
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flow cytrometry
problems- cannot deal with more than one or 2 bacteria and expensive
solution - count cells by dilutions
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turbidimetric
Depends on how cloudy media is
- Problems - can only look at one organism
- depends on organisms environments
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Transcription initiator complex
waits for initiators to start
makes polymer of RNA (which can form secondary structure
separates 2 DNA strands to make new RNA
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corum sensing
- bacteria can "talk"
- - when they are together they recieve each other's sign als and are able to see how many of them exist and can then make a move all together
- - auto inducer 1 - species specific
- - auto inducer 2 - interspecies
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competitive inhibition
Why better than antibiotics
blocks receptor with a similar molecule
by killing bacteria we are only allowing the resistant forms to live which does not stop the damage they do. if we inhibit them, we keeo them from talking to each other
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different types of media
culture media - nutrient solutions used to grom microorganisms in the laboratory
defined media (selective) - prepared by adding precise amounts of highly purified inorganic or organic chemicals to distilled water
Complex media - highly nutritious yet impure substances (usually better)
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chemical compartmenalism
using GTP instead of ATP for certain functions (ribosomes use GTP for translocation)
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