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Art
Art is a primarily visual medium that serves to express an idea or evoke a response beyond the practical or functional ends.
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History
Broad: Past events
Narrow: Written record of past events
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Three Levels of Analysis
1.Pre-Iconography
2.Iconography
3.Iconology
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Establishing context in Art (Visual Corpus)
- Technological
- Stylistic
- Iconographic
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Establishing context in Archaeology
- Stratigraphic
- Spatial Distribution
- Radiocarbon dating
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Establishing context in Anthropology (Four-fold)
- Social/Cultural (Ethnography, ethnohistory, cultural ecology)
- Linguistic
- Physical (Biological, cognitive)
- [Archaeology]
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Renascence (Panofsky)
continued reuse of visual forms and their meanings
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Disjunction (Panofsky)
the adoption of preceding forms into contemporary setting; or, conversely, the application of contemporary meaning onto older forms. (1960)
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Renascence (Kubler)
“Continuous form does not predicate continuous meaning, nor does continuity of form or of meaning necessarily imply continuity of culture.’ (1975)
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Disjunction (Kubler)
For the ancient Americas:“The idea of disjunction... makes every ethnological analogy questionable.”
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Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541)
- •Came over on a number of expeditions
- •Went to Panama, which made it a center of trade
- •Invited to explore Peru
- •Goes to Tumbes first
- •Brought smallpox with him to Peru, which infects the Inca ruler Huayna Capac
- -Establishes San Miguel de Piura
- -Arrives in Cajamarca November 15, 1532
- -Captures Cuzco 1533; Manco Inca to throne
- -Establishes Lima 1535
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Manila Galleons
trade routes from Phillipines
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Coricancha
"Golden Enclosure"
- Temple of the Sun--Church of Santo Domingo
- Spanish placed cathedrals on top of temples
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Quinto Real
Royal Fifth
taxation of 1/5 of all wealth from Peru to Spanish crown
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Francisco Pizarro established.... and conquered....
Establishes Tumbes, Piura, Trujillo, and Lima
Conquers Quito,Cajamarca, and Cuzco
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Spanish Conquest of Peru
1532-1572
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Huaca
Sacred rock, mountain, site, or object
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1500s-1600s
Spanish chroniclers
Looting of Ancient sites
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1700s
Extirpation of Idolatry
Final Inca rebellion
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1800s
Independence from Spain
First archaeological projects
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1900s
Agrarian reforms
Andean studies
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Stratigraphy
study of the composition and superposition of geological or cultural strata
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Horizon style
INCA Urpu/Aryballos
•Coastal-highlands-northeast
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Paleo-Indian Period (Lithic) years
10000-3000 BCE
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Pre-Ceramic years and areas
3000-2000 BCE
Kotosh Religious Traditions (highlands) and Norte-Chico Complex (coast)
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Initial Period (Early-Middle Formative) years and areas
- 2000-900 BCE
- Cupisnique (North) and Sechin Complex (coast)
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Early Horizon (Late Formative) years and area
- 900-200 BCE
- Chavin de Huantar (highlands)
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Early Intermediate Period years and areas
200-600 CE
Moche (North) and Nasca (south coast)
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Middle Horizon years and areas
- 600-1000 CE
- Wari (highlands) and Tiwanaku (highlands)
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Late Intermediate period and areas
- 1000-1476 CE
- Chimu (North) and Ica (South) and Pachacamac (central coast)
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Late Horizon years and area
- 1476-1532 CE
- Inca Empire (highlands)
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Early Horizon; Chavin de Huantar (highlands)
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Early Intermediate Period; Moche (north) and Nazca (south)
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Initial Period; Cupisnique (north)
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Late Horizon; Inca empire (highlands)
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Late Intermediate Period; Chimu (north) and Ica (south)
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Middle Horizon; Wari (highlands) and Tiwanaku
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Northern Andes cultures
- Cupisnique
- Chavín de Huántar
- Moche
- Lambayeque/Sican
- Chimu: Chimor Kingdom
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Southern Andes cultures
- Paracas
- Nasca
- Tiwanaku
- Wari
- Inca
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Cultures not addressed
- Cajamarca
- Recuay
- Chachapoyas
- Ica
- Ichma
- Lima
- etc.
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Clovis Culture
11500-10500 BCE
Big game hunters
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Folsom culture
10500-9000 BP
"Bison kill sites"
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Monte Verde, Chile
- 12,750 BCE
- Pre-Clovis
- 12 rooms community
- Preserved in peat
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Three-Wave Migration Theory
- Linguistic: glotochronology
- mtDNA haplogroups
- Dental morphology
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Pre-Columbian Andes
- Lack of wheel
- Textile production
- Binary systems: dual moeity structure, symbolic dualities
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Pre-Columbian Andes: Coastal desert
Peanut, maize (corn)
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Pre-Columbian Andes: River valleys
Manioc (yuca)
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Pre-Columbian Andes: Mountains
Quinoa and potato
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Pre-Columbian Andes: Ceja de Selva
Coca
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Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilizations (MFAC)
-Marine resources along the coast, supplemented by incipient agriculture, prompted a ‘neolithic revolution’ in the settlement and cultural development of western South America.
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Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilizations supports
Sedentism
Population growth
Increase social complexity
Monumental architecture
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Late Preceramic=
Cotton preceramic
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Huaca de los Idolos, Aspero (2900-2500 BCE)
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Huaca de los Idolos, Aspero (2900-2500 BCE)
- -Artificial mound
- -Fieldstone construction: shicra
- -Clay plastered walls
- -Rooms with wall niches
- -Remodeling: rooms filled
- -No domestic refuse
- -Graded access
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Corporate Labor
- A group works together for the construction of a local huaca for the benefit of the community
- - Failure to contribute results in social sanctions
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Shicra
loose mesh bags of crushed sedge or cattail with stone fill; only public architecture use
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Huaca, as a sacred site center...
- -Fosters sense of community identity
- -Creates a symbolic landscape
- -Provides central focus for community and ritual
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Why define and discuss RITUAL ARCHITECTURE? (Moore 1995)
- •“The individual is seldom visible in the archaeological record, and environmental conditions rarely preserve the material evidence of unrepeated ritual actions.”
- •“Ritual spaces are formally defined because they communicate basic information about the relations between members of society and between society and the cosmos.”
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Five variable to distinguish types of ritual architecture
1) permanence-perishable or durable materials; well or poorly constructed
2) scale-overall and relative size of a structure
3) centrality-relative location of structure (center or periphery)
4) ubiquity-Relative distribution, occurrence of structure type
5) visibility-Relative publicness of structure (visibility and access)
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Caral
2600-2000 BCE
- •Reciprocal exchange between coast fishermen and farmers
- •Use of circular plaza
•May have directed a procession in and around the use of the flutes
•Monkey and avian forms widely used on flutes
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Caral: Templo de Anfiteatro
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El Paraiso
2200-1900 BCE
- Room 1: central fire pit
- Unit II: avian feather, bird remains
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El Paraiso (2200-1900 BCE)
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Pre-Ceramic trends in Architecture
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Pre-Ceramic trends in Materials
- -Cotton (nets and textiles)
- -Bone
- -Shell
- -Gourd (containers and floats)
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Pre-Ceramic trends in Iconography
- -Double-headed animals
- -Stylized anthropomorphs
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Pre-Ceramic Highlands Kotosh religion traditions
Rainfall agriculture (potatoes, oca, quinoa)
Hunting (deer, vicuña, guañaco)
Domesticated animals (guinea pig, llama, alpaca)
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Kotosh: Temple of Crossed Hands
Symbolic dualities-male (fig 1) and female (fig 3)
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- Small enclosed chambers that generally contain:
- 1) a central firepit, 2) split-level floor, and 3) subfloor flue(s).
- Their similar design across site centers implies their use in similar ritual practices or religious beliefs.
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La Galgada (2700-1500 BCE)
KRT units
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"Temple Entombment" (KRT)
- -the careful filling in of the architectural chamber units in order to build a new structure on top;
- - it provides for increasing mound elevation and site prominence
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Cache
a hiding place especially for concealing and preserving provisions or implements
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Evidence of trade in Preceramic Highlands
-Obsidian: from south highlands
- Tropical marine shells: from Ecuador
- Monkeys and Birds: forest regions?
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Richard Burger: Three elements for the economic foundations of Late Preceramic Cultures:
•1- Intensive utilization of marine resources
•2- Floodplain Agriculture (irrigation)
•3- Long-Distance Trade
•[*Organized cooperation: inter-valley exchange, constructions]
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Chiefdom
a ranked society with population centers that coordinate its religious, social, and economic activities. A chiefdom is usually larger in size and population than an egalitarian society, (a band or a tribe), but it is smaller, less stratified, less centrally organized than a state (Service 1962).
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"Group-oriented" chiefdom
minimal evidence of accumulated individual wealth but clear indications of communal or corporate activities.
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"Individualizing" chiefdom
evidence of marked differences in personal possessions and symbols of prestige, which greatly outweigh expressions of communal authority (burial treatment, presence of luxury trade items, etc).
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