Endocrine System and Blood

The endocrine system is:

The endocrine system interacts with the nervous system to:

Define endocrine gland

What organ has both neural and endocrine functions?

Define hormone

What are the two types of chemical composition of hormones, which is most common?

Hormones circulate to all tissues but a given hormone influences the activity of only certain cells referred to as target cells. What must these cells contain in order for a hormone to influence its activity?

Will a given hormone have the same effect on all of its target cells?

Which type of hormones must communicate with their target cells via a second messenger and why?

Although there are a few exceptions, blood levels of most hormones are controlled by what type of feedback system?

Hormones are synthesized and released in responses to what 3 stimuli? Give an example of each.

Where is the pituitary gland located?

What are the two lobes of the pituitary gland and what type of tissue is each composed of?

Where are the posterior pituitary hormones synthesized and where are they stored?

What stimulus causes posterior pituitary hormones to be released into the bloodstream?

How does the hypothalamus regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones?

What are the six hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary?

What is a tropic hormone?

Which anterior pituitary hormones are tropic?

What is the primary function of growth hormone (GH)?

What substance is secreted in response to GH that mediates its effect?

How is GH release regulated by the hypothalamus?

What triggers the release of Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHRH)?

GH secretion has a daily cycle with peak levels ________________ . GH secretion peaks during _____________ and then declines with age.

Hypersecretion of GH after epiphyseal plate closure is called:

Acromegaly is a disorder evidenced by overgrowth of what structures?

What is the most common cause of acromegaly?

What is the function of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

What triggers TSH release, what inhibits it?

What is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

What triggers ACTH release?

What can alter the daily rhythm of ACTH's trigger?

What are the two gonadotropins and what is the primary function of each?

How are the gonadotropins triggered and suppressed?

What is the function of prolactin (PRL)?

What regulates PRL?

A rise in blood levels of what other hormone results in a surge of prolactin release towards the end of pregnancy?

What are the two posterior pituitary hormones and what stimulates their release?

What are the two primary functions of oxytocin?

What kind of feedback mechanism are the functions of oxytocin?

Oxytocin drugs are utilized to induce ____________ and stop ______________ .

What is the primary effect of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

_______________ in the hypothalmus monitor solute concentrations in the blood. If the concentration is too high, this indicates there is _______________ water in the blood stream. This results in ADH ______________ . ADH then causes _____________ to reabsorb more water from forming urine, re-establishing water balance in the bloodstream.

Alcohol _________ ADH release.

Thyroid hormone (TH) is the body's major metabolic hormone. What is its primary function?

The thyroid gland is unique in its ability to store hormone (it is actually the hormone precursor) extracellulary. Where does it store this hormone and what is the material that fills this storage site called?

The thyroid gland secretes two forms of TH. It secretes more of ___ but most of this is converted to the more active form ____ in the tissues.

What is the leading cause of hypothyroidism globally? Why do these people have a goiter?

The most common cause of ______________ is Grave's disease which is a(n) _________ disease in which the antibodies produced mimic _________ which stimulates ____ release. These individuals usually develop __________ , a bulging of the eyeballs which is caused by ______________ .

What are the three ways that parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium?

All adrenal hormones help us cope with _____________

What are the two regions of the adrenal gland and what type of tissue comprises each?

What is the predominant mineralcorticoid and what layer of the adrenal cortex secretes it?

What does aldosterone (and all mineralcorticoids) regulate? By what mechanism does the regulation occur?

What is sodium (Na+) so important for overall body homeostatis?

What stimulates and inhibits aldosterone secretion?

What is the function of glucocorticoids?

Which is the most significant glucocorticoid and what layer of the adrenal cortex secretes it?

How is cortisol secretion regulated?

What disrupts the body's normal daily rhythm of cortisol secretion?

In order to deal with stress, cortisol, via multiple metabolic effects, causes an increase in blood levels of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids. How and why do these metabolic effect occur?

What additional action of cortisol is synergistic with the actions of the sympathetic nervous system? How does this action help the body deal with stress?

What "syndrome" is caused by hypersecretion of cortisol? What is usually the cause of this disorder? What are the "signs" of this "syndrome"?

What region of the adrenal gland is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system in situations of acute stress?

What two hormones are released in response to acute stress situations?

What are the six actions of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine that help the body deal with acute stress?

All of the adrenal gland hormones are secreted in response to stress. However, there is a difference in the type of stress that results in release of hormones from the adrenal cortex vs. the adrenal medulla? What is this difference?

What type of tumor of the adrenal gland results in hypersecretion of catecholamines?

What are the two hormones secreted by the pancreas and which type of cells secrete each?

Glucagon promotes metabolic activites that cause a(n) _________ in blood _________ levels and insulin promotes metabolic activities that cause a(n) __________ in blood _______ levels.

After what activity is insulin secretion stimulated?

Hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin is called __________ .

What is the predominate metabolic effect of diabetes mellitus? What are the three cardinal "signs" of diabetes mellitus?

What is the life threatening process that can occur during acute diabetic hyperglycemic crisis? What fatty acid metabolites causes this? Why is there an increase in these metabolites in the blood?

Type I DM ( _________ onset) is caused by _______________ so that those with this disorder lack ___________ which must be administered to prevent ___________

Type II ( ______ onset) constitutes ___ % of DM cases. These individuals can produce insulin but ______________ . Those with this disorder are almost always ________ and _______ .

What are the long term complications of DM? What causes these complications? Which type of diabetics are at risk for these complications?

The gonads produce steroid sex hormones. The ovaries produce _________ and _________ and the testes produce __________ .

The thymus is felt to be involved in normal development of the ________ response. Is the thymus a prominate functioning gland in adults?

What hormonal changes contributes to old people wearing sweaters in the summer?

What are the three functions of blood?

Blood plasma is composed mostly of ________ . The main protein carried in blood plasma is ________ .

What are the three types of formed blood elements? Which is the only type that are complete cells?

What is the function of the erythrocytes? What are the three structural characteristics that contribute to this function?

What are the components of hemoglobin's structure?

What is the pigment in hemoglobin that carries oxygen?

What is the element in this hemoglobin pigment that oxygen attaches to?

How many oxygens are carried by each hemoglobin molecule?

What cells give rise to all formed elements and where are they located?

A blood count of which RBC precursor can be utilized to provide an estimate of the rate of RBC formation?

What hormone serves as the stimulus for erythropoiesis? Where is it produced? What promotes the synthesis and release of this hormone?

What are the three dietary requirements for normal erythropoiesis?

Where are old and fragile erythrocytes engulfed? What is the ultimate fate of the heme pigment of hemoglobin after RBCs are destroyed?

What is anemia? What are three general causes of anemia?

What is the main cause of anemia due to insufficient erythrocytes?

Bleeding from what general location is a frequent cause of the chronic form of hemorrhagic anemia? What nutritional abnormality results that exacerbates this condition?

Pernicious anemia is a(n) ___________ disease, most common in the _______, which is caused by deficiency of ____________ due to lack of ______________ , normally produced by the stomach mucosa and needed for _____________ .

Sickle-cell anemia, most prevalent in those of ______ ancestry, is a genetic abnormality that results in the production of abnormal _________ . RBCs become _________ in low oxygen situations which causes RBCs to rupture and dam up vessels causing _______ and ___________ (acute sickle-cell crisis).

What is polycythemia? What causes secondary polycythemia?

What is the function of the leukocytes (WBCs)?

What are the three types of granulocytes?

What are the most numerous granulocytes? Why are they called "polys"?

Neutrophils are the body's "________ slayers" which they slay via __________ . As such, their numbers in the blood _______ during ___________ infections.

Which granulocytes play a role in allergies and asthma?

What are the two types of agranulocytes? Which are most numerous?

Which of the WBCs plays a crucial role in immunity?

Which are the largest leukocytes, which differentiate into macrophages and are actively phagocytic?

Finding an increased number of what immature form of granulocytes (particularly neutrophils) in the blood can be indicative of an active inflammatory or infections process?

Leukemias are a group of _______ conditions involving WBCs where abnormal leukocytes _________________ totally occupying the bone marrow and crowding out ______________ .

________ leukemia is the more serious form affecting children and _______ leukemia involves more mature cells and is prevalent in _________

Platelets are cytoplasmic fragments of:

What is the function of platelets?

What is hemostasis and what are its three steps?

What is coagulation?

What are the two pathways in phase 1 of coagulation that involve a cascade of chemical reactions to form prothombin activator? What is the difference between the two pathways that gives them their names? Which pathway is more commonly used?

Where are clotting factors in phase 1 synthesized and what vitamin is necessary for synthesis of four of these?

What occurs during coagulation phase 2?

What occurs during coagulation phase 3?

What is released by endothelial cells in presence of clot that converts plasminogen to plasmin, a fibrin-digesting enzyme? In what disorders might this substance be administered acutely in the emergency room?

What is a thrombus? What is an embolus?

What are three causes of bleeding disorders? What are the hemophilias caused by?

Blood is tested and categorized into blood types since:

Antigens of which two blood groups can cause vigorous transfusion reactions?

Of the ABO blood groups, which is the univeral donor? Why?

Of the ABO blood groups, which group is the universal recipient? Why?

What is the most devastating problem in a transfusion reaction? What causes this?

What are two common solutions used to restore blood volume?

What are PT and PTT blood tests used to assess?